diff --git a/cite.bib b/cite.bib index 13dcdef..bfc05a6 100644 --- a/cite.bib +++ b/cite.bib @@ -133,7 +133,8 @@ volume={29}, pages={2626--2636}, year={2009}, -} +}# Cited + @article{hildebrandt2015neural, title={A neural mechanism for time-window separation resolves ambiguity of adaptive coding}, author={Hildebrandt, K Jannis and Ronacher, Bernhard and Hennig, R Matthias and Benda, Jan}, diff --git a/main.aux b/main.aux index 97d0c19..9ab6ae2 100644 --- a/main.aux +++ b/main.aux @@ -22,10 +22,6 @@ \abx@aux@segm{0}{0}{machens2001discrimination} \abx@aux@cite{0}{machens2001representation} \abx@aux@segm{0}{0}{machens2001representation} -\abx@aux@cite{0}{suga1960peripheral} -\abx@aux@segm{0}{0}{suga1960peripheral} -\abx@aux@cite{0}{gollisch2002energy} -\abx@aux@segm{0}{0}{gollisch2002energy} \@writefile{lof}{\contentsline {figure}{\numberline {1}{\ignorespaces Grasshopper auditory system}}{3}{}\protected@file@percent } \newlabel{fig:pathway}{{1}{3}{}{}{}} \@writefile{toc}{\contentsline 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Package biblatex Info: Trying to load language 'english'... Package biblatex Info: ... file 'english.lbx' found. (/usr/share/texlive/texmf-dist/tex/latex/biblatex/lbx/english.lbx @@ -624,13 +626,13 @@ Package biblatex Info: Automatic encoding selection. Package biblatex Info: Trying to load bibliographic data... Package biblatex Info: ... file 'main.bbl' found. (./main.bbl) -Package biblatex Info: Reference section=0 on input line 26. -Package biblatex Info: Reference segment=0 on input line 26. -LaTeX Font Info: Trying to load font information for U+msa on input line 27. +Package biblatex Info: Reference section=0 on input line 32. +Package biblatex Info: Reference segment=0 on input line 32. +LaTeX Font Info: Trying to load font information for U+msa on input line 33. (/usr/share/texlive/texmf-dist/tex/latex/amsfonts/umsa.fd File: umsa.fd 2013/01/14 v3.01 AMS symbols A ) -LaTeX Font Info: Trying to load font information for U+msb on input line 27. +LaTeX Font Info: Trying to load font information for U+msb on input line 33. (/usr/share/texlive/texmf-dist/tex/latex/amsfonts/umsb.fd File: umsb.fd 2013/01/14 v3.01 AMS symbols B ) [1 @@ -642,16 +644,21 @@ File: figures/fig_auditory_pathway.pdf Graphic file (type pdf) Package pdftex.def Info: figures/fig_auditory_pathway.pdf , page1 used on input line 56. (pdftex.def) Requested size: 455.24411pt x 378.38292pt. ) [2] [3 <./figures/fig_auditory_pathway.pdf>] -Overfull \hbox (13.04964pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 170--172 +Overfull \hbox (81.90907pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 178--187 +\OT1/cmr/m/n/12 terneu-rons (Fig.1[]b). Both the lo-cal in-terneu-rons ([]; []) + [] + + +Overfull \hbox (13.04964pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 192--194 []\OT1/cmr/m/n/12 Similar re-sponse/filter prop-er-ties within re-cep-tor/interneuron pop-u-la-tions ([]Clemens, Kutzki, [] -[4] -Overfull \hbox (9.43962pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 246--246 +[4] [5] +Overfull \hbox (9.43962pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 268--268 []\OT1/cmr/bx/n/17.28 Two mech-a-nisms driv-ing the emer-gence of intensity- [] -[5] [6] [7] [8] (./main.aux) +[6] [7] [8] [9] (./main.aux) *********** LaTeX2e <2023-11-01> patch level 1 L3 programming layer <2024-01-22> @@ -661,18 +668,18 @@ Package logreq Info: Writing requests to 'main.run.xml'. ) Here is how much of TeX's memory you used: - 17701 strings out of 474222 - 380636 string characters out of 5748732 - 1936975 words of memory out of 5000000 - 39735 multiletter control sequences out of 15000+600000 + 17752 strings out of 474222 + 381669 string characters out of 5748732 + 1935975 words of memory out of 5000000 + 39782 multiletter control sequences out of 15000+600000 566832 words of font info for 70 fonts, out of 8000000 for 9000 1141 hyphenation exceptions out of 8191 94i,19n,93p,713b,989s stack positions out of 10000i,1000n,20000p,200000b,200000s -Output written on main.pdf (8 pages, 1097477 bytes). +Output written on main.pdf (9 pages, 1098175 bytes). PDF statistics: - 1080 PDF objects out of 1200 (max. 8388607) - 685 compressed objects within 7 object streams + 1083 PDF objects out of 1200 (max. 8388607) + 687 compressed objects within 7 object streams 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) 18 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) diff --git a/main.pdf b/main.pdf index 1ed35ac..8407deb 100644 Binary files a/main.pdf and b/main.pdf differ diff --git a/main.synctex.gz b/main.synctex.gz index dfb45a2..c7e2ce5 100644 Binary files a/main.synctex.gz and b/main.synctex.gz differ diff --git a/main.tex b/main.tex index 1a0f35a..0f32f7c 100644 --- a/main.tex +++ b/main.tex @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ \documentclass[a4paper, 12pt]{article} \usepackage[left=2.5cm,right=2.5cm,top=2cm,bottom=2cm,includeheadfoot]{geometry} +\usepackage[onehalfspacing]{setspace} \usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{svg} \usepackage{import} @@ -11,11 +12,16 @@ \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage[separate-uncertainty=true, locale=DE]{siunitx} \sisetup{output-exponent-marker=\ensuremath{\mathrm{e}}} +% \usepackage[capitalize]{cleveref} +% \crefname{figure}{Fig.}{Figs.} +% \crefname{equation}{Eq.}{Eqs.} +% \creflabelformat{equation}{#2#1#3} \usepackage[ backend=biber, style=authoryear, - mincitenames=1, - maxcitenames=2 + pluralothers=true, + maxcitenames=1, + mincitenames=1 ]{biblatex} \addbibresource{cite.bib} @@ -26,11 +32,26 @@ \begin{document} \maketitle{} +% Text references and citations: +\newcommand{\bcite}[1]{\mbox{\cite{#1}}} +% \newcommand{\fref}[1]{\mbox{\cref{#1}}} +% \newcommand{\fref}[1]{\mbox{Fig.\,\ref{#1}}} +% \newcommand{\eref}[1]{\mbox{\cref{#1}}} +% \newcommand{\eref}[1]{\mbox{Eq.\,\ref{#1}}} + +% Math shorthands - Standard symbols: +\newcommand{\dec}{\log_{10}} % Logarithm base 10 +\newcommand{\infint}{\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}} % Indefinite integral + +% Math shorthands - Spectral filtering: \newcommand{\bp}{h_{\text{BP}}(t)} % Bandpass filter function \newcommand{\lp}{h_{\text{LP}}(t)} % Lowpass filter function \newcommand{\hp}{h_{\text{HP}}(t)} % Highpass filter function \newcommand{\fc}{f_{\text{cut}}} % Filter cutoff frequency +\newcommand{\tlp}{T_{\text{LP}}} % Lowpass filter averaging interval +\newcommand{\thp}{T_{\text{HP}}} % Highpass filter adaptation interval +% Math shorthands - Early representations: \newcommand{\raw}{x} % Placeholder input signal \newcommand{\filt}{\raw_{\text{filt}}} % Bandpass-filtered signal \newcommand{\env}{\raw_{\text{env}}} % Signal envelope @@ -38,18 +59,18 @@ \newcommand{\dbref}{\raw_{\text{ref}}} % Decibel reference intensity \newcommand{\adapt}{\raw_{\text{adapt}}} % Adapted signal -\newcommand{\dec}{\log_{10}} % Logarithm base 10 -\newcommand{\svar}{\sigma_{\text{s}}^{2}} % Song signal variance -\newcommand{\nvar}{\sigma_{\eta}^{2}} % Noise signal variance -\newcommand{\infint}{\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}} % Indefinite integral +% Math shorthands - Kernel parameters: +\newcommand{\ks}{\sigma_i} % Gabor kernel width +\newcommand{\kf}{f_i} % Gabor kernel frequency +\newcommand{\kp}{\phi_i} % Gabor kernel phase + +% Math shorthands - Threshold nonlinearity: \newcommand{\thr}{\Theta_i} % Step function threshold value \newcommand{\nl}{H(c_i\,-\,\thr)} % Shifted Heaviside step function -\newcommand{\bi}{b_{i,\Theta}} % Single threshold-constrained binary response -\newcommand{\feat}{f_{i,\Theta}} % Single threshold-constrained feature - -\newcommand{\thp}{T_{\text{HP}}} % Highpass filter adaptation interval -\newcommand{\tlp}{T_{\text{LP}}} % Lowpass filter averaging interval +% Math shorthands - Minor symbols and helpers: +\newcommand{\svar}{\sigma_{\text{s}}^{2}} % Song signal variance +\newcommand{\nvar}{\sigma_{\eta}^{2}} % Noise signal variance \newcommand{\pc}{p(c_i,\,T)} % Probability density (general interval) \newcommand{\pclp}{p(c_i,\,\tlp)} % Probability density (lowpass interval) @@ -126,42 +147,43 @@ $\rightarrow$ More general, simpler, unfitted formalized Gabor filter bank \subsection{Population-driven signal pre-processing} Grasshoppers receive airborne sound waves by a tympanal organ at each side of -the thorax~(Fig.\,\ref{fig:pathway}a). The tympanal membrane acts as a mechanical resonance filter: -Vibrations of specific frequencies are focused on different membrane areas, -while other frequencies are attenuated~(\mbox{\cite{michelsen1971frequency}}; -\mbox{\cite{windmill2008time}}; \mbox{\cite{malkin2014energy}}). This -processing step can be approximated by an initial bandpass filter +the thorax~(Fig.\,\ref{fig:pathway}a). The tympanal membrane acts as a +mechanical resonance filter, that focuses vibrations of specific frequencies on +different membrane areas while attenuating +others~(\bcite{michelsen1971frequency}; \bcite{windmill2008time}; +\bcite{malkin2014energy}). This processing step can be approximated by an +initial bandpass filter \begin{equation} \filt(t)\,=\,\raw(t)\,*\,\bp, \qquad \fc\,=\,5\,\text{kHz},\,30\,\text{kHz} \label{eq:bandpass} \end{equation} applied to the acoustic input signal $\raw(t)$. The auditory receptor neurons -connect directly to the tympanal membrane and transduce mechanical vibrations -into electro-chemical potentials. The receptor population is substrate to -several known signal processing steps. First, the receptors extract -the signal envelope~(\mbox{\cite{machens2001discrimination}}), which likely -involves a rectifying nonlinearity~(\mbox{\cite{machens2001representation}}). -This can be modelled as full-wave rectification followed by lowpass filtering +connect directly to the tympanal membrane. Besides performing the +mechano-electrical transduction, the receptor population further is substrate +to several known processing steps. First, the receptors extract the signal +envelope~(\bcite{machens2001discrimination}), which likely involves a +rectifying nonlinearity~(\bcite{machens2001representation}). This can be +modelled as full-wave rectification followed by lowpass filtering \begin{equation} \env(t)\,=\,|\filt(t)|\,*\,\lp, \qquad \fc\,=\,500\,\text{Hz} \label{eq:env} \end{equation} of the tympanal signal $\filt(t)$. Furthermore, the receptors exhibit a sigmoidal response curve over logarithmically compressed intensity -levels~(\mbox{\cite{suga1960peripheral}}; \mbox{\cite{gollisch2002energy}}). In -the model, logarithmic compression is achieved by conversion to decibel scale +levels~(\bcite{suga1960peripheral}; \bcite{gollisch2002energy}). In the model, +logarithmic compression is achieved by conversion to decibel scale \begin{equation} \db(t)\,=\,10\,\cdot\,\dec \frac{\env(t)}{\dbref}, \qquad \dbref\,=\,\max[\env(t)] \label{eq:log} \end{equation} relative to the maximum intensity $\dbref$ of the signal envelope $\env(t)$. -Next, the axons of the receptor neurons project into the metathoracic ganglion, -where they synapse onto local interneurons~(Fig.\,\ref{fig:pathway}b). Both the -auditory receptors~(\mbox{\cite{fisch2012channel}}) and the subsequent -interneurons~(\mbox{\cite{clemens2010intensity}}) display spike-frequency -adaptation. - - +The axons of the receptor neurons project into the metathoracic ganglion, where +they synapse onto local interneurons~(Fig.\,\ref{fig:pathway}b). Both the local +interneurons~(\bcite{hildebrandt2009origin}; \bcite{clemens2010intensity}) and, +to a lesser extent, the receptors themselves~(\bcite{fisch2012channel}) display +spike-frequency adaptation in response to sustained stimulation. +This behavior is crucial to render subsequent signal representations invariant +to variations in sound intensity. "Pre-split portion" of the auditory pathway:\\ @@ -205,10 +227,10 @@ $\rightarrow$ Individual neuron-specific response traces from this stage onwards Template matching by individual ANs\\ - Filter base (STA approximations): Set of Gabor kernels\\ -- Gabor parameters: $\sigma, \phi, f$ $\rightarrow$ Determines kernel sign and lobe number +- Gabor parameters: $\ks, \kp, \kf$ $\rightarrow$ Determines kernel sign and lobe number % \begin{equation} - k(t)\,=\,e^{-\frac{t^{2}}{2\sigma^{2}}}\,\cdot\,\sin(2\pi f t\,+\,\phi) + k_i(t,\,\ks,\,\kf,\,\kp)\,=\,e^{-\frac{t^{2}}{2{\ks}^{2}}}\,\cdot\,\sin(2\pi\kf\,\cdot\,t\,+\,\phi_i) \label{eq:gabor} \end{equation} % @@ -225,7 +247,7 @@ Thresholding nonlinearity in ascending neurons (or further downstream)\\ $\rightarrow$ Shifted Heaviside step-function $\nl$ (or steep sigmoid threshold?) % \begin{equation} - \bi(t)\,=\,\begin{cases} + b_i(t,\,\thr)\,=\,\begin{cases} \;1, \quad c_i(t)\,>\,\thr\\ \;0, \quad c_i(t)\,\leq\,\thr \end{cases} @@ -239,7 +261,7 @@ of feature values $\rightarrow$ Clusters in high-dimensional feature space\\ $\rightarrow$ Lowpass filter 1 Hz % \begin{equation} - \feat(t)\,=\,\bi(t)\,*\,\lp, \qquad \fc\,=\,1\,\text{Hz} + f_i(t)\,=\,b_i(t)\,*\,\lp, \qquad \fc\,=\,1\,\text{Hz} \label{eq:lowpass} \end{equation} % @@ -273,7 +295,7 @@ $\env(t)$ with ($\alpha>0$) and without ($\alpha=0$) song signal $s(t)$, assumin \begin{equation} \begin{split} \db(t)\,&=\,\log \frac{\alpha\,\cdot\,s(t)\,+\,\eta(t)}{\dbref}\\ - &=\,\log \frac{\alpha}{\dbref}\,+\,\log \big[s(t)\,+\,\frac{\eta(t)}{\alpha}\big] + &=\,\log \frac{\alpha}{\dbref}\,+\,\log b_ig[s(t)\,+\,\frac{\eta(t)}{\alpha}b_ig] \end{split} \label{eq:toy_log} \end{equation} @@ -290,7 +312,7 @@ interval $\thp$ ($0 \ll \thp < \frac{1}{\fc}$) % \begin{equation} \begin{split} - \adapt(t)\,\approx\,\db(t)\,-\,\log \frac{\alpha}{\dbref}\,=\,\log \big[s(t)\,+\,\frac{\eta(t)}{\alpha}\big] + \adapt(t)\,\approx\,\db(t)\,-\,\log \frac{\alpha}{\dbref}\,=\,\log b_ig[s(t)\,+\,\frac{\eta(t)}{\alpha}b_ig] \end{split} \label{eq:toy_highpass} \end{equation} @@ -316,7 +338,7 @@ $\rightarrow$ Recurring trade-off: Equalizing signal intensity vs preserving ini \subsection{Threshold nonlinearity \& temporal averaging} -Convolved $c_i(t)$ $\xrightarrow{\nl}$ Binary $\bi(t)$ $\xrightarrow{\lp}$ Feature $\feat(t)$ +Convolved $c_i(t)$ $\xrightarrow{\nl}$ Binary $b_i(t)$ $\xrightarrow{\lp}$ Feature $f_i(t)$ \textbf{Thresholding component:}\\ - Within an observed time interval $T$, $c_i(t)$ follows probability density $\pc$\\ @@ -337,29 +359,29 @@ of time $T_1$ where $c_i(t)>\thr$ to total time $T$ due to normalization of $\pc \end{equation} % \textbf{Averaging component:}\\ -- Lowpass filter over binary response $\bi(t)$ (Eq.\,\ref{eq:lowpass}) can be +- Lowpass filter over binary response $b_i(t)$ (Eq.\,\ref{eq:lowpass}) can be approximated as temporal averaging over a suitable time interval $\tlp$ ($\tlp > \frac{1}{\fc}$)\\ -- Within $\tlp$, $\bi(t)$ takes a value of 1 ($c_i(t)>\thr$) for time $T_1$ ($T_1+T_0=\tlp$) +- Within $\tlp$, $b_i(t)$ takes a value of 1 ($c_i(t)>\thr$) for time $T_1$ ($T_1+T_0=\tlp$) % \begin{equation} - \feat(t)\,\approx\,\frac{1}{\tlp} \int_{t}^{t\,+\,\tlp} \bi(\tau)\,d\tau\,=\,\frac{T_1}{\tlp} + f_i(t)\,\approx\,\frac{1}{\tlp} \int_{t}^{t\,+\,\tlp} b_i(\tau)\,d\tau\,=\,\frac{T_1}{\tlp} \label{eq:feat_avg} \end{equation} % -$\rightarrow$ Temporal averaging over $\bi(t)\in[0,1]$ (Eq.\,\ref{eq:binary}) gives +$\rightarrow$ Temporal averaging over $b_i(t)\in[0,1]$ (Eq.\,\ref{eq:binary}) gives ratio of time $T_1$ where $c_i(t)>\thr$ to total averaging interval $\tlp$\\ -$\rightarrow$ Feature $\feat(t)$ approximately represents supra-threshold fraction of $\tlp$ +$\rightarrow$ Feature $f_i(t)$ approximately represents supra-threshold fraction of $\tlp$ \textbf{Combined result:}\\ -- Feature $\feat(t)$ can be linked to the distribution of $c_i(t)$ using Eqs.\,\ref{eq:pdf_split} \& \ref{eq:feat_avg} +- Feature $f_i(t)$ can be linked to the distribution of $c_i(t)$ using Eqs.\,\ref{eq:pdf_split} \& \ref{eq:feat_avg} % \begin{equation} - \feat(t)\,\approx\,\int_{\thr}^{+\infty} \pclp\,dc_i\,=\,P(c_i\,>\,\thr,\,\tlp) + f_i(t)\,\approx\,\int_{\thr}^{+\infty} \pclp\,dc_i\,=\,P(c_i\,>\,\thr,\,\tlp) \label{eq:feat_prop} \end{equation} % $\rightarrow$ Because the integral over a probability density is a cumulative -probability, the value of feature $\feat(t)$ (temporal compression of $\bi(t)$) +probability, the value of feature $f_i(t)$ (temporal compression of $b_i(t)$) at every time point $t$ signifies the probability that convolution output $c_i(t)$ exceeds the threshold value $\thr$ during the corresponding averaging interval $\tlp$ @@ -369,25 +391,25 @@ interval $\tlp$ template waveform $k_i(t)$ and signal $\adapt(t)$ centered at time point $t$\\ $\rightarrow$ Based on amplitudes on a graded scale -- Feature $\feat(t)$ quantifies the probability that amplitudes of $c_i(t)$ +- Feature $f_i(t)$ quantifies the probability that amplitudes of $c_i(t)$ exceed threshold value $\thr$ within interval $\tlp$ around time point $t$\\ $\rightarrow$ Based on binned amplitudes corresponding to one of two categorical states $\rightarrow$ Deliberate loss of precise amplitude information\\ $\rightarrow$ Emphasis on temporal structure (ratio of $T_1$ over $\tlp$) -- Thresholding of $c_i(t)$ and subsequent temporal averaging of $\bi(t)$ to -obtain $\feat(t)$ constitutes a remapping of an amplitude-encoding quantity into a +- Thresholding of $c_i(t)$ and subsequent temporal averaging of $b_i(t)$ to +obtain $f_i(t)$ constitutes a remapping of an amplitude-encoding quantity into a duty cycle-encoding quantity, mediated by threshold function $\nl$ - Different scales of $c_i(t)$ can result in similar $T_1$ segments depending on the magnitude of the derivative of $c_i(t)$ in temporal proximity to time points at which $c_i(t)$ crosses threshold value $\thr$\\ $\rightarrow$ The steeper the slope of $c_i(t)$, the less $T_1$ changes with scale variations\\ -$\rightarrow$ If $T_1$ is invariant to scale variation in $c_i(t)$, then so is $\feat(t)$ +$\rightarrow$ If $T_1$ is invariant to scale variation in $c_i(t)$, then so is $f_i(t)$ - Suggests a relatively simple rule for optimal choice of threshold value $\thr$:\\ $\rightarrow$ Find amplitude $c_i$ that maximizes absolute derivative of $c_i(t)$ over time\\ -$\rightarrow$ Optimal with respect to intensity invariance of $\feat(t)$, not necessarily for +$\rightarrow$ Optimal with respect to intensity invariance of $f_i(t)$, not necessarily for other criteria such as song-noise separation or diversity between features - Nonlinear operations can be used to detach representations from graded physical @@ -396,9 +418,9 @@ stimulus (to fasciliate categorical behavioral decision-making?):\\ $\rightarrow$ Closely following the AM of the acoustic stimulus\\ 2) Quantify relevant stimulus properties on a graded scale: $c_i(t)$\\ $\rightarrow$ More decorrelated representation, compared to prior stages\\ -3) Nonlinearity: Distinguish between "relevant vs irrelevant" values: $\bi(t)$\\ +3) Nonlinearity: Distinguish between "relevant vs irrelevant" values: $b_i(t)$\\ $\rightarrow$ Trading a graded scale for two or more categorical states\\ -4) Represent stimulus properties under relevance constraint: $\feat(t)$\\ +4) Represent stimulus properties under relevance constraint: $f_i(t)$\\ $\rightarrow$ Graded again but highly decorrelated from the acoustic stimulus\\ 5) Categorical behavioral decision-making requires further nonlinearities\\ $\rightarrow$ Parameters of a behavioral response may be graded (e.g. approach speed),