1005 lines
115 KiB
TeX
1005 lines
115 KiB
TeX
% Template for PLoS
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% Version 3.6 Aug 2022
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%
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% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
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%
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% -- IMPORTANT NOTE
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%
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% This template contains comments intended
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% to minimize problems and delays during our production
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% process. Please follow the template instructions
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% whenever possible.
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% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
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%
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% Once your paper is accepted for publication,
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% PLEASE REMOVE ALL TRACKED CHANGES in this file
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% and leave only the final text of your manuscript.
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% PLOS recommends the use of latexdiff to track changes during review, as this will help to maintain a clean tex file.
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% Visit https://www.ctan.org/pkg/latexdiff?lang=en for info or contact us at latex@plos.org.
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%
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%
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% There are no restrictions on package use within the LaTeX files except that no packages listed in the template may be deleted.
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%
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% Please do not include colors or graphics in the text.
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% The manuscript LaTeX source should be contained within a single file (do not use \input, \externaldocument, or similar commands).
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%
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% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
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%
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% -- FIGURES AND TABLES
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% Please include tables/figure captions directly after the paragraph where they are first cited in the text.
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%
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% DO NOT INCLUDE GRAPHICS IN YOUR MANUSCRIPT
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% - Figures should be uploaded separately from your manuscript file.
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% - Figures generated using LaTeX should be extracted and removed from the PDF before submission.
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% - Figures containing multiple panels/subfigures must be combined into one image file before submission.
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% For figure citations, please use "Fig" instead of "Figure".
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% See http://journals.plos.org/plosone/s/figures for PLOS figure guidelines.
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%
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% Tables should be cell-based and may not contain:
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% - spacing/line breaks within cells to alter layout or alignment
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% - do not nest tabular environments (no tabular environments within tabular environments)
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% - no graphics or colored text (cell background color/shading OK)
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% See http://journals.plos.org/plosone/s/tables for table guidelines.
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%
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% For tables that exceed the width of the text column, use the adjustwidth environment as illustrated in the example table in text below.
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% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
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%
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% -- EQUATIONS, MATH SYMBOLS, SUBSCRIPTS, AND SUPERSCRIPTS
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%
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% IMPORTANT
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% Below are a few tips to help format your equations and other special characters according to our specifications. For more tips to help reduce the possibility of formatting errors during conversion, please see our LaTeX guidelines at http://journals.plos.org/plosone/s/latex
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%
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% For inline equations, please be sure to include all portions of an equation in the math environment. For example, x$^2$ is incorrect; this should be formatted as $x^2$ (or $\mathrm{x}^2$ if the romanized font is desired).
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%
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% Do not include text that is not math in the math environment. For example, CO2 should be written as CO\textsubscript{2} instead of CO$_2$.
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%
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% Please add line breaks to long display equations when possible in order to fit size of the column.
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%
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% For inline equations, please do not include punctuation (commas, etc) within the math environment unless this is part of the equation.
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%
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% When adding superscript or subscripts outside of brackets/braces, please group using {}. For example, change "[U(D,E,\gamma)]^2" to "{[U(D,E,\gamma)]}^2".
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%
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% Do not use \cal for caligraphic font. Instead, use \mathcal{}
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% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
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% Please contact latex@plos.org with any questions.
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% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
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\documentclass[10pt,letterpaper]{article}
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\usepackage[top=0.85in,left=2.75in,footskip=0.75in]{geometry}
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% amsmath and amssymb packages, useful for mathematical formulas and symbols
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\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb}
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% Use adjustwidth environment to exceed column width (see example table in text)
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\usepackage{changepage}
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% textcomp package and marvosym package for additional characters
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\usepackage{textcomp,marvosym}
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% cite package, to clean up citations in the main text. Do not remove.
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\usepackage{cite}
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% Use nameref to cite supporting information files (see Supporting Information section for more info)
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\usepackage{nameref}%,hyperref
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\usepackage[breaklinks=true,colorlinks=true,citecolor=blue!30!black,urlcolor=blue!30!black,linkcolor=blue!30!black]{hyperref}
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% \usepackage{natbib}%sort,comma,,round
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% \setcitestyle{super,comma,sort&compress}%authoryear,
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% line numbers
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\usepackage[right]{lineno}
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% ligatures disabled
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\usepackage[nopatch=eqnum]{microtype}
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\DisableLigatures[f]{encoding = *, family = * }
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% color can be used to apply background shading to table cells only
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\usepackage[table]{xcolor}
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% array package and thick rules for tables
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\usepackage{array}
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% create "+" rule type for thick vertical lines
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\newcolumntype{+}{!{\vrule width 2pt}}
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% create \thickcline for thick horizontal lines of variable length
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\newlength\savedwidth
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\newcommand\thickcline[1]{%
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\noalign{\global\savedwidth\arrayrulewidth\global\arrayrulewidth 2pt}%
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\cline{#1}%
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\noalign{\vskip\arrayrulewidth}%
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\noalign{\global\arrayrulewidth\savedwidth}%
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}
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% \thickhline command for thick horizontal lines that span the table
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\newcommand\thickhline{\noalign{\global\savedwidth\arrayrulewidth\global\arrayrulewidth 2pt}%
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\hline
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\noalign{\global\arrayrulewidth\savedwidth}}
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% Remove comment for double spacing
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%\usepackage{setspace}
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%\doublespacing
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% Text layout
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\raggedright
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\setlength{\parindent}{0.5cm}
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\textwidth 5.25in
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\textheight 8.75in
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% Bold the 'Figure #' in the caption and separate it from the title/caption with a period
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% Captions will be left justified
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\usepackage[aboveskip=1pt,labelfont=bf,labelsep=period,justification=raggedright,singlelinecheck=off]{caption}
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\renewcommand{\figurename}{Fig}
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% Use the PLoS provided BiBTeX style
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%\bibliographystyle{plos2015}
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\bibliographystyle{apalike}%alpha}%}%alpha}%apalike}
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% Remove brackets from numbering in List of References
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\makeatletter
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\renewcommand{\@biblabel}[1]{\quad#1.}
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\makeatother
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% Header and Footer with logo
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\usepackage{lastpage,fancyhdr,graphicx}
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\usepackage{epstopdf}
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%\pagestyle{myheadings}
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\pagestyle{fancy}
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\fancyhf{}
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%\setlength{\headheight}{27.023pt}
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%\lhead{\includegraphics[width=2.0in]{PLOS-submission.eps}}
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\rfoot{\thepage/\pageref{LastPage}}
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\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}
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\renewcommand{\footrule}{\hrule height 2pt \vspace{2mm}}
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\fancyheadoffset[L]{2.25in}
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\fancyfootoffset[L]{2.25in}
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\lfoot{\today}
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\usepackage{lipsum}
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\usepackage[mediumspace,mediumqspace,Gray,amssymb]{SIunits}
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\usepackage{ifthen}
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%% BEGIN MACROS SECTION
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%%%%% species names %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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\newcommand{\Lepto}{\emph{Apteronotus leptorhynchus}}
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\newcommand{\lepto}{\emph{A. leptorhynchus}}
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\newcommand{\Eigen}{\emph{Eigenmannia virescens}}
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\newcommand{\eigen}{\emph{E. virescens}}
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%%%%% notes %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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\newcommand{\note}[2][]{\textbf{[#1: #2]}}
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%\newcommand{\note}[2][]{}
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\newcommand{\noteab}[1]{\note[AB]{#1}}
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\newcommand{\notejb}[1]{\note[JB]{#1}}
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\newcommand{\notejg}[1]{\note[JG]{#1}}
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\newcommand{\notems}[1]{\note[MS]{#1}}
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\newcommand{\notebl}[1]{\note[BL]{#1}}
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%%%%% equation references %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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\renewcommand{\eqref}[1]{(\ref{#1})}
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\newcommand{\eref}[1]{\ref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\eqn}{Eq}
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\newcommand{\Eqn}{Eq}
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\newcommand{\eqns}{Eqs}
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\newcommand{\Eqns}{Eqs}
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\newcommand{\Eqnref}[1]{\Eqn~\eqref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\Eqnsref}[1]{\Eqns~\eqref{#1}}
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%%%%% figures %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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% references to panels of a figure within the caption:
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\newcommand{\figitem}[2][]{\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{\textsf{\bfseries #2}}{\textsf{\bfseries #2}}$_{\sf #1}$}
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% references to panels of a figure within the text:
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%\newcommand{\panel}[2][]{\textsf{#2}}
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\newcommand{\panel}[2][]{\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{\textsf{#2}}{\textsf{#2}$_{\sf #1}$}}%\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{\textsf{#2}}{\textsf{#2}$_{\sf #1}$}
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% references to figures:
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\newcommand{\fref}[1]{\textup{\ref{#1}}}
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\newcommand{\subfref}[2]{\textup{\ref{#1}}\,\panel{#2}}
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% references to figures in normal text:
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\newcommand{\fig}{Fig}
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\newcommand{\Fig}{Figure}
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\newcommand{\figs}{Figs}
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\newcommand{\Figs}{Figures}
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\newcommand{\figref}[1]{\fig~\fref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\Figref}[1]{\Fig~\fref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\figsref}[1]{\figs~\fref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\Figsref}[1]{\Figs~\fref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\subfigref}[2]{\fig~\subfref{#1}{#2}}
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\newcommand{\Subfigref}[2]{\Fig~\subfref{#1}{#2}}
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\newcommand{\subfigsref}[2]{\figs~\subfref{#1}{#2}}
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\newcommand{\Subfigsref}[2]{\Figs~\subfref{#1}{#2}}
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% references to figures within brackets:
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\newcommand{\figb}{Fig}
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\newcommand{\figsb}{Figs}
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\newcommand{\figrefb}[1]{\figb~\fref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\figsrefb}[1]{\figsb~\fref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\subfigrefb}[2]{\figb~\subfref{#1}{#2}}
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\newcommand{\subfigsrefb}[2]{\figsb~\subfref{#1}{#2}}
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%%%%% changes %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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\newcommand{\remove}[2][]{%
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\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}<2}%
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{\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}=0}%
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{}% 0
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{\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{\textit{\textbf{[#1:]}} }\st{#2}}}% 1
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{\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}=2}%
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{\protect\marginpar{\protect\rule[-0.3ex]{0.5mm}{2ex}}\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{\textit{\textbf{[#1:]}} }\st{#2}}% 2
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{\protect\marginpar{\small\textbf{deleted\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{ [#1]}:} #2}}}}% 3
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\newcommand{\add}[2][]{%
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\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}<2}%
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{\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}=0}%
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{#2}% 0
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{\textcolor{red}{\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{\textit{[#1:]} }#2}}}% 1
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{\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}=2}%
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{{\protect\marginpar{\protect\rule[-0.3ex]{0.5mm}{2ex}}\bfseries \ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{\textit{[#1:]} }#2}}% 2
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{\protect\marginpar{\small\textbf{inserted\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{ [#1]}}}{\bfseries #2}}}}% 3
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\newcommand{\change}[2][]{%
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\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}<2}%
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{\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}=0}%
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{#2}% 0
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{\textcolor{red}{\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{\textit{[#1:]} }#2}}}% 1
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{\protect\ifthenelse{\value{showtrackchanges}=2}%
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{\protect\marginpar{\protect\rule[-0.3ex]{0.5mm}{2ex}}{\bfseries \ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{\textit{[#1:]} }#2}}% 2
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{\protect\marginpar{\small\textbf{changed\ifthenelse{\equal{#1}{}}{}{ [#1]}}}{\bfseries #2}}}}% 3
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%%%%% new commands %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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\newcommand{\fstim}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{stim}}}}
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\newcommand{\feod}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{EOD}}}}
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\newcommand{\feodsolid}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{EOD}}}}
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\newcommand{\feodhalf}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{EOD}}/2}}
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\newcommand{\fbase}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{base}}}}
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\newcommand{\fbasesolid}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{base}}}}
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\newcommand{\fstimintro}{\ensuremath{\rm{EOD}_{2}}}
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\newcommand{\feodintro}{\ensuremath{\rm{EOD}_{1}}}
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\newcommand{\ffstimintro}{\ensuremath{f_{2}}}
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\newcommand{\ffeodintro}{\ensuremath{f_{1}}}
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\newcommand{\carrierinput}{\ensuremath{y(t)}}
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\newcommand{\baseval}{134}
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\newcommand{\bone}{$\Delta f_{1}$}
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\newcommand{\btwo}{$\Delta f_{2}$}
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\newcommand{\fone}{$f_{1}$}
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\newcommand{\ftwo}{$f_{2}$}
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\newcommand{\ff}{$f_{1}$--$f_{2}$}
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\newcommand{\auc}{\rm{AUC}}
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\newcommand{\n}{\ensuremath{N}}
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\newcommand{\bvary}{\ensuremath{\Delta f_{1}}}
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\newcommand{\avary}{\ensuremath{A(\Delta f_{1})}}
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\newcommand{\afvary}{\ensuremath{A(f_{1})}}
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\newcommand{\avaryc}{\ensuremath{A(c_{1})}}
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\newcommand{\cvary}{\ensuremath{c_{1}}}
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\newcommand{\fvary}{\ensuremath{f_{1}}}
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\newcommand{\bstable}{\ensuremath{\Delta f_{2}}}
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\newcommand{\astable}{\ensuremath{A(\Delta f_{2})}}
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\newcommand{\astablec}{\ensuremath{A(c_{2})}}
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\newcommand{\cstable}{\ensuremath{c_{2}}}
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\newcommand{\fstable}{\ensuremath{f_{2}}}
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\newcommand{\aeod}{\ensuremath{A(f_{\rm{EOD}})}}
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\newcommand{\fbasecorrsolid}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{BaseCorrected}}}}
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\newcommand{\fbasecorr}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{BaseCorrected}}}}
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\newcommand{\ffall}{$f_{\rm{EOD}}$\&$f_{1}$\&$f_{2}$}
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\newcommand{\ffvary}{$f_{\rm{EOD}}$\&$f_{1}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\ffstable}{$f_{\rm{EOD}}$\&$f_{2}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\colstableone}{blue}%sum
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\newcommand{\colstabletwo}{cyan}%sum
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\newcommand{\colvaryone}{brown}%sum
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\newcommand{\colvarytwo}{red}%sum
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\newcommand{\colstableoneb}{Blue}%sum
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\newcommand{\colstabletwob}{Cyan}%sum
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\newcommand{\colvaryoneb}{Brown}%sum Brown
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\newcommand{\colvarytwob}{Red}%sum
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\newcommand{\resp}{$A(f)$}%sum %\Delta
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\newcommand{\respb}{$A(\Delta f)$}%sum %\Delta
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\newcommand{\rocf}{98}%sum %\Delta
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\newcommand{\roci}{36}%sum %\Delta
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%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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% Beat combinations
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\newcommand{\boneabs}{\ensuremath{|\Delta f_{1}|}}%sum
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\newcommand{\btwoabs}{\ensuremath{|\Delta f_{2}|}}%sum
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%\newcommand{\bsum}{\ensuremath{|\boneabs{} + \btwoabs{}|}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bsum}{\ensuremath{\boneabs{} + \btwoabs{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bdiff}{\ensuremath{|\boneabs{} - \btwoabs{}|}}%diff of both beat frequencies
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\newcommand{\signalnoise}{$s_\xi(t)$}%su\right m
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\newcommand{\bsumb}{$\bsum{}=\fbase{}$}%su\right m
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\newcommand{\btwob}{$\Delta f_{2}=\fbase{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\boneb}{$\Delta f_{1}=\fbase{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\bsumbtwo}{$\bsum{}=2 \fbase{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\bsumbc}{$\bsum{}=\fbasecorr{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\bsume}{$\bsum{}=\feod{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\bsumehalf}{$\bsum{}=\feod{}/2$}%sum
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\newcommand{\bdiffb}{$\bdiff{}=\fbase{}$}%diff of both beat frequencies
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\newcommand{\bdiffbc}{$\bdiff{}=\fbasecorr{}$}%diff of both beat frequencies
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\newcommand{\bdiffe}{$\bdiff{}=\feod{}$}%diff of both
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\newcommand{\bdiffehalf}{$\bdiff{}=\feod{}/2$}%diff of both
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%beat frequencies
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%%%%% tables %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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% references to tables:
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\newcommand{\tref}[1]{\textup{\ref{#1}}}
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% references to tables in normal text:
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\newcommand{\tab}{Tab.}
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\newcommand{\Tab}{Table}
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\newcommand{\tabs}{Tabs.}
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\newcommand{\Tabs}{Tables}
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\newcommand{\tabref}[1]{\tab~\tref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\Tabref}[1]{\Tab~\tref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\tabsref}[1]{\tabs~\tref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\Tabsref}[1]{\Tabs~\tref{#1}}
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% references to tables within the bracketed text:
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\newcommand{\tabb}{Tab.}
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\newcommand{\tabsb}{Tab.}
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\newcommand{\tabrefb}[1]{\tabb~\tref{#1}}
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\newcommand{\tabsrefb}[1]{\tabsb~\tref{#1}}
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%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Frequency combinations
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\newcommand{\fsum}{\ensuremath{f_{1} + f_{2}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\fdiff}{\ensuremath{|f_{1}-f_{2}|}}%diff of
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\newcommand{\fsumb}{$\fsum=\fbase{}$}%su\right m
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\newcommand{\ftwob}{$f_{2}=\fbase{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\foneb}{$f_{1}=\fbase{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\ftwobc}{$f_{2}=\fbasecorr{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\fonebc}{$f_{1}=\fbasecorr{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\fsumbtwo}{$\fsum{}=2 \fbase{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\fsumbc}{$\fsum{}=\fbasecorr{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\fsume}{$\fsum{}=\feod{}$}%sum
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\newcommand{\fsumehalf}{$\fsum{}=\feod{}/2$}%sum
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\newcommand{\fdiffb}{$\fdiff{}=\fbase{}$}%diff of both beat frequencies
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\newcommand{\fdiffbc}{$\fdiff{}=\fbasecorr{}$}%diff of both beat frequencies
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\newcommand{\fdiffe}{$\fdiff{}=\feod{}$}%diff of both
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\newcommand{\fdiffehalf}{$\fdiff{}=\feod{}/2$}%diff of both
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\newcommand{\fctwo}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{Female}}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\fcone}{\ensuremath{f_{\rm{Intruder}}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bctwo}{\ensuremath{\Delta \fctwo{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcone}{\ensuremath{\Delta \fcone{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcsum}{\ensuremath{|\bctwo{}| + |\bcone{}|}}%sum
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\newcommand{\abcsumabbr}{\ensuremath{A(\Delta f_{\rm{Sum}})}}%sum
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\newcommand{\abcsum}{\ensuremath{A(\bcsum{})}}%sum
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\newcommand{\abcone}{\ensuremath{A(\bcone{})}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bctwoshort}{\ensuremath{\Delta f_{F}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bconeshort}{\ensuremath{\Delta f_{I}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcsumshort}{\ensuremath{|\bctwoshort{} + \bconeshort{}|}}%sum
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\newcommand{\abcsumshort}{\ensuremath{A(\bcsumshort{})}}%sum
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\newcommand{\abconeshort}{\ensuremath{A(|\bconeshort{}|)}}%sum
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\newcommand{\abcsumb}{\ensuremath{A(\bcsum{})=\fbasesolid{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcdiff}{\ensuremath{||\bctwo{}| - |\bcone{}||}}%diff of both beat frequencies
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\newcommand{\bcsumb}{\ensuremath{\bcsum{} =\fbasesolid{}}}%su\right m
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\newcommand{\bcsumbn}{\ensuremath{\bcsum{} \neq \fbasesolid{}}}%su\right m
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\newcommand{\bctwob}{\ensuremath{\bctwo{} =\fbasesolid{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bconeb}{\ensuremath{\bcone{} =\fbasesolid{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcsumbtwo}{\ensuremath{\bcsum{}=2 \fbasesolid{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcsumbc}{\ensuremath{\bcsum{}=\fbasecorr{}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcsume}{\ensuremath{\bcsum{}=f_{\rm{EOD}}}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcsumehalf}{\ensuremath{\bcsum{}=f_{\rm{EOD}}/2}}%sum
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\newcommand{\bcdiffb}{\ensuremath{\bcdiff{}=\fbasesolid{}}}%diff of both beat frequencies
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\newcommand{\bcdiffe}{\ensuremath{\bcdif{}f=f_{\rm{EOD}}}}%diff of both
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\begin{document}
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\vspace*{0.2in}
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% Title must be 250 characters or less.
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\begin{flushleft}
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{\Large
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\textbf{Second-order susceptibility in electrosensory primary afferents in a three-fish setting}\\[2ex]
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\textbf{Estimating and interpreting non-linear encoding in electrosensory primary afferents (in a cocktail party problem)}
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}
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\newline
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% Insert author names, affiliations and corresponding author email (do not include titles, positions, or degrees).
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\\
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Alexandra Barayeu\textsuperscript{1},
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Maria Schlungbaum\textsuperscript{2,3},
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Benjamin Lindner\textsuperscript{2,3},
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Jan Benda\textsuperscript{1, 4}
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Jan Grewe\textsuperscript{1, *}
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\\
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\bigskip
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\textbf{1} Institute for Neurobiology, Eberhard Karls Universit\"at T\"ubingen, 72076 T\"ubingen, Germany\\
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\textbf{2} Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Berlin, Germany\\
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\textbf{3} Department of Physics, Humboldt University Berlin, Berlin, Germany\\
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\textbf{4} Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany\\
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\bigskip
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% Insert additional author notes using the symbols described below. Insert symbol callouts after author names as necessary.
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%
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% Remove or comment out the author notes below if they aren't used.
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%
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\paragraph{Short title:}
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\paragraph{Corresponding author:}Jan Grewe, E-mail: jan.grewe@uni-tuebingen.de
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\paragraph{Conflict of interest:}The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\paragraph{Author Contributions:} All authors designed the study and discussed the results. AB performed the data analyses and modelling, AB and JG drafted the paper, all authors discussed and revised the manuscript.
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\paragraph{Keywords:} population coding $|$ conduction delay $|$ heterogeneity $|$ electric fish $|$ mutual information
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% Additional Equal Contribution Note
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% Also use this double-dagger symbol for special authorship notes, such as senior authorship.
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% \ddag These authors also contributed equally to this work.
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% Current address notes
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% \textcurrency Current Address: Dept/Program/Center, Institution Name, City, State, Country % change symbol to "\textcurrency a" if more than one current address note
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% \textcurrency b Insert second current address
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% \textcurrency c Insert third current address
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% Deceased author note
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% \dag Deceased
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% Group/Consortium Author Note
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% \textpilcrow Membership list can be found in the Acknowledgments section.
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% Use the asterisk to denote corresponding authorship and provide email address in note below.
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* jan.grewe@uni-tuebingen.de
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\end{flushleft}
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% Please keep the abstract below 300 words
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\section*{Abstract}
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Neuronal processing is inherently nonlinear, mechanisms such as the spiking threshold, or recitication during synaptic transmission are central to neuronal computations. Here we address the consequences of nonlinear interactions between two sinewave stimuli in the context of an electrosensory cocktail party in weakly electric fish. In a previous field study, it was observed that an extremely weak intruder signal was detected despite the presence of a much stronger female signal. Modelling studies showed that, in some scenarios, the presence of the strong female signal leads to an improved intruder detection. This was associated with nonlinearities in neuronal processing. Theoretical work has shown that the presence of two independent periodic signals can lead to nonlinear interactions. We here extend on this by applying the analysis of the second-order susceptibility to experimentally recorded primary electroreceptor afferents of the active (P-units) and the passive (ampullary cells) electrosensory system. Our combined experimental and modelling approach shows that nonlinear interactions can be found in these cells and depends on the level of intrinsic noise. We can further show that simple white-noise stimulation can be used to quickly access the second-order susceptibility of a system even when the system is driven by the amplitude modulation of a carrier such as the electric organ discharge of weakly electric fish. This method can thus be easily applied to describe nonlinear processing in any sensory modality whether they are driven by direct stimuli or amplitude modulations.
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% Please keep the Author Summary between 150 and 200 words
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% Use first person. PLOS ONE authors please skip this step.
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% Author Summary not valid for PLOS ONE submissions.
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\section*{Author summary}
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Weakly electric fish use their self-generated electric field to detect a wide range of behaviorally relevant stimuli. Intriguingly, they show detection performances of stimuli that are (i) extremely weak and (ii) occur in the background of strong foreground signals, reminiscent of what is often described as the cocktail party problem. Such performances are achieved by boosting the signal detection through nonlinear mechanisms. We here analyze nonlinear encoding in two different populations of primary electrosensory afferences of the weakly electric fish. We derive the rules under which nonlinear effects can be observed in both electrosensory subsystems. In a combined experimental and modelling approach we generalize the approach of nonlinear susceptibility to systems that respond to amplitude modulations of a carrier signal.
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\linenumbers
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%Nonlinearities contribute to the encoding of the full behaviorally relevant signal range in primary electrosensory afferents.
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%Nonlinear effects identified as mechanisms that contribute
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%Nonlinearities in primary electrosensory afferents, the P-units, of \textit{Apteronotus leptorhynchus} enables the encoding of a wide dynamic range of behavioral-relevant beat frequencies and amplitudes
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%Nonlinearities in primary electrosensory afferents contribute to the representation of a wide range of beat frequencies and amplitudes
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%Nonlinearities contribute to the encoding of a wide range of beat frequencies and amplitudes in primary electrosensory afferents
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%The role of nonlinearities in the encoding of a wide range of beat frequencies and amplitudes in primary electrosensory afferents
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%Nonlinearities facilitate the encoding of a wide range of beat frequencies and amplitudes in primary electrosensory afferents
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%\begin{abstract}
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%In this work, the influence of nonlinearities on stimulus encoding in the primary sensory afferents of weakly electric fish of the species \lepto{} was investigated. These fish produce an electric organ discharge (EOD) with a fish-specific frequency. When the EOD of one fish interferes with the EOD of another fish, it results in a signal with a periodic amplitude modulation, called beat. The beat provides information about the sex and size of the encountered conspecific and is the basis for communication. The beat frequency is predicted as the difference between the EOD frequencies and the beat amplitude corresponds to the size of the smaller EOD field. Primary sensory afferents, the P-units, phase-lock to the EOD and encode beats with changes in their firing rate. In this work, the nonlinearities of primary electrosensory afferents, the P-units of weakly electric fish of the species \lepto{} and \eigen{} were addressed. Nonlinearities were characterized as the second-order susceptibility of P-units, in a setting where at least three fish were present. The nonlinear responses of P-units were especially strong in regular firing P-units. White noise stimulation was confirmed as a method to retrieve the socond-order suscepitbility in P-units.% with bursting being identified as a factor enhancing nonlinear interactions.
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%\end{abstract}
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%\end{frontmatter}
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\notejg{Cite Schlungbaum in introduction}
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\section*{Introduction}
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%with nonlinearities being observed in all sensory modalities
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Nonlinear processes are key to neuronal information processing. Decision making is a fundamentally nonlinear process on the systemic level. On the cellular level, spiking neurons are inherently nonlinear: whether an action potential is elicited depends on the membrane potential to exceed a threshold\cite{Hodgkin1952,Koch1995}. In nonlinear systems neuronal noise may facilitate the encoding of weak stimuli via stochastic resonance\cite{Wiesenfeld1995, Stocks2000, Neiman2011fish}. We can find nonlinearities in many sensory systems such as rectification in the transduction machinery of inner hair cells \cite{Peterson2019}, signal rectification in electroreceptor cells \cite{Chacron2000, Chacron2001}, or in complex cells of the visual system \cite{Adelson1985}. In the auditory or the active electric sense, for example, nonlinear processes are needed to extract envelopes, i.e. amplitude modulations of a carrier signal\cite{Joris2004, Barayeu2023} called beats. Beats are common stimuli in different sensory modalities enabling rhythm and pitch perception in human hearing \cite{Roeber1834, Plomp1967, Joris2004, Grahn2012} and providing context for electrocommunication in weakly electric fish \cite{Engler2001, Hupe2008, Henninger2018, Benda2020}.
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\notejb{Wo genau soll die Einleitung hinzielen? Das ist bis jetzt eine Ansammlung von Aussagen zum Thema nonlinearities und irgendwie schleicht sich da der Fisch noch rein.}
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\notejb{What are the main findings of the manuscript? (i) 2nd order susceptibility can be measured using RAM stimuli, (ii) we see a bit of nonlinearity in low-CV P-units and strong one in ampullary cells. (ii) We find stuff, that matches the theoretical predictions (Voronekov) (iii) AMs with carrier (auditory) (iv) There is an estimation problem because of low N and RAM stimulus introducing linearizing noise. (v) noise split gives a good estimate that translates well to pure sine wave stimulation.}
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\notejb{Strong aspects are (i) how to estimate 2nd order susceptibilities, (ii) what do they tell us about relevant stimuli, (iii) nonlinearities show up only for very specific frequencies}
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\notejb{For the estimation problem we need to cite work that also measured higher order Wiener kernels and filters (we need to find the Andrew French paper, who else? Gabbiani? John Miller?). For nonlinear encoding we need to talk about linear-nonlinear models (Chinchilinsky, Gollisch, Jan Clemens) versus Wiener series (French). And we find nonlinear responses in neurons that have been considered as quite linear, but only at specific frequency combinations and low signal amplitudes.}
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\noteab{The nonlinearity of a system has been accessed with the use of wiener kernels \cite{French1973,French1976}, measuring the system response to white noise stimulation. Besides that the nonlinearity of a system has been addressed by pure sinewave simulation, considering the Fourier transform of the Volterra series \cite{Victor1977,Victor1980,Shapley1979}. The estimates of the nonlinearity with both methods, white noise and sinewave stimulation, was shown to yield similar results \cite{Vitor1979}. Nonlinearity was investigated, not addressing the system properties, but focusing on the quadratic phase coupling of the two input frequencies \cite{Nikias1993, Neiman2011fish}. With these approaches nonlinearity at the sum of two input frequencies was quantified in retinal cells \cite{Shapley1979} for stimuli with small amplitudes, in ampullary cells \cite{Neiman2011fish}, in the EEG of sleep \cite{Barnett1971,Bullock1997} and in mechanorecetors \cite{French1976}. Second-order responses have been quantified in not amplitude modulated \cite{Neiman2011fish} and amplitude modulated systems \cite{Victor1977,Victor1980,Shapley1979}.}
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\begin{figure*}[t]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{plot_chi2}
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\caption{\label{fig:plot_chi2} Nonlinearity predicted based on the analytic results in \cite{Voronenko2017}. \figitem{A} Second-order susceptibility. \figitem{B} First-order susceptibility.
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}
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\end{figure*}
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\noteab{Ich weiß nicht ob du in die Literatur reingeschaut hast, aber so eine Dreiecksstruktur finden wir schon in früheren Arbeiten! Vor allen in denen von Viktor.}
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While the encoding of signals can often be well described by linear models in the sensory periphery\cite{Machens2001}, this is not true for many upstream neurons. Rather, nonlinear processes are implemented to extract special stimulus features\cite{Adelson1985,Gabbiani1996,Olshausen1996,Gollisch2009}. In active electrosensation, the self-generated electric field (electric organ discharge, EOD) that is quasi sinusoidal in wavetype electric fish acts as the carrier signal that is amplitude modulated in the context of communication\cite{Walz2014, Henninger2018, Benda2020}, object detection and navigation\cite{Fotowat2013, Nelson1999}. In social contexts, the interference of the EODs of two interacting animals result in a characteristic periodic amplitude modulation, the so-called beat. The beat amplitude is defined by the smaller EOD amplitude, its frequency is defined as the difference between the two EOD frequencies ($\Delta f = f-\feod{}$, valid for $f < \feod{}/2$)\cite{Barayeu2023}. Cutaneous electroreceptor organs that are distributed over the bodies of these fish \cite{Carr1982} are tuned to the own field\cite{Hopkins1976,Viancour1979}. Probability-type electroreceptor afferents (P-units) innervate these organs via ribbon synapses\cite{Szabo1965, Wachtel1966} and project to the hindbrain where they trifurcate and synapse onto pyramidal cells in the electrosensory lateral line lobe (ELL)\cite{Krahe2014}. The P-units of the gymnotiform electric fish \lepto{} encode such amplitude modulations (AMs) by modulation of their firing rate\cite{Gabbiani1996}. They fire probabilistically but phase-locked to the own EOD and the skipping of cycles leads to their characteristic multimodal interspike-interval distribution. Even though the extraction of the AM itself requires a nonlinearity\cite{Middleton2006,Stamper2012Envelope,Savard2011,Barayeu2023} encoding the time-course of the AM is linear over a wide range of AM amplitudes and frequencies\cite{Xu1996,Benda2005,Gussin2007,Grewe2017,Savard2011}. In the context of social signalling among three fish we observe an AM of the AM, also referred to as second-order envelope or just social envelope\cite{Middleton2006, Savard2011, Stamper2012Envelope}. Encoding this again requires nonlinearities\cite{Middleton2006} and it was shown that a subpopulation of P-units are sensitive to envelopes\cite{Savard2011} and exhibit nonlinearities e.g. when driven by strong stimuli\cite{Nelson1997,Chacron2004}.
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\begin{figure*}[t]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{motivation}
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\caption{\label{fig:motivation} Nonlinearity in an electrophysiologically recorded P-unit of \lepto{} in a three-fish setting (cell identifier ``2021-08-03-ac"). Receiver with EOD frequency $\feod{} =664$\,Hz encounters fish with EOD frequencies $f_{1}=631$\,Hz and $f_{2}=797$\,Hz. Both encountered fish lead to a beat contrast of 10\,\%. Top: Sheme of a nonlinear system. Second row: Interference of the receiver EOD with the EODs of other fish. Third row: Spike trains of the P-unit. Forth row: Firing rate, retrieved as the convolution of the spike trains with a Gaussian kernel ($\sigma = 1$\,ms). Bottom row: Power spectrum of the firing rate. \figitem{A} Baseline condition: Only the receiver is present. The baseline firing rate \fbase{} dominates the power spectrum of the firing rate. \figitem{B} The receiver and the fish with EOD frequency $f_{1}=631$\,Hz are present. \figitem{C} The receiver and the fish with EOD frequency $f_{2}=797$\,Hz are present. \figitem{D} All three fish with the EOD frequencies \feod{}, $f_{1}$ and $f_{2}$ are present. Nonlinear peaks occur at the sum and difference of the two beat frequencies in the power spectrum of the firing rate.
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}
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\end{figure*}
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Recent theoretical and modelling work on leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) model neurons revealed specific pattern of nonlinear interactions when driven with weak sinewaves\cite{Voronenko2017}. This situation is reminiscent of the real fish's situation in which three electric fish interact. The active electrosensory system is then exposed to the two AMs arising from the interactions with either foreign fish's field. Previous recordings in the natural habitat showed interactions of three animals in which two animals interacted closely (strong signals) and were interrupted by an intruding animal (weak signal). The intruder was detected at spatial distances that led to an extremely faint intruder signal while the strong signal of the other animal is present\cite{Henninger2018}. When the receiver fish with EOD frequency \feod{} is alone, the P-unit fire action potentials as a baseline response $r_{0}$ at a spontaneous baseline rate \fbase{}. Accordingly, a peak at \fbase{} is present in the power spectrum of the neuronal response (\subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{A}, bottom). Phase-locking to the own field also leads to a representation of \feod{} in the P-unit firing rate (see \figref{fig:cells_suscept}\panel{B})\cite{Sinz2020}. The beat frequency when two fish interact is also represented in the respective responses and accordingly, there is a peak in power spectrum at $\Delta f_1$ or $\Delta f_2$ (\subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{B, C}, respectively). When three fish encounter, all their waveforms interfere with both beat frequencies being present in the superimposed signal (\subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}, second row). The power spectrum of the neuronal activity contains both previously seen beat peaks, but also nonlinear interaction peaks at the sum frequency \bsum{} and the difference frequency \bdiff{} (\subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}, bottom), thus the response of the system is not equal to the input (\subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}, top). The appearing difference peak is known as the social envelope\cite{Stamper2012Envelope, Savard2011}. The neuron shown here, clearly encodes the envelope. Whether P-units in general encode envelopes has been subject of controversy, some works do not consider P-units as envelope encoders\cite{Middleton2006}, while others identify some P-units as envelope encoders\cite{Savard2011}.
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The P-unit responses can be partially explained by simple linear filters. The linear relation of the cellular response and the stimulus can be captured by the first-order susceptibility (or transfer function). As in Volterra series, higher-order terms describe the nonlinear interactions. We quantify the nonlinearity of P-unit encoding by estimating the second-order susceptibility from white-noise responses\cite{Nikias1993,Neiman2011fish, Voronenko2017,Egerland2020}. We address whether the theory still holds for neurons that do not encode the foreign signals directly but respond to the AM of a carrier. For this study we re-use a large set of recordings of afferents of both the active (P-units) and the passive electrosensory (ampullary cells) to work out which cellular features enhance nonlinear encoding.
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\section*{Results}
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\notejb{Diese Absatz ist eigentlich eine schoene Einleitung!}
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Theoretical work \cite{Voronenko2017} shows that stochastic leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) model neurons may show nonlinear stimulus encoding when the model is driven by two cosine signals with specific frequencies. In the context of weakly electric fish, such a setting is part of the animal's everyday life. The sinusoidal electric-organ discharges (EODs) of neighboring animals interfere and lead to amplitude modulations (AMs), called beats (two-fish interaction), and modulations of beats, called envelopes (multiple-fish interaction) \cite{Middleton2006, Savard2011,Stamper2012Envelope}. The p-type electroreceptor afferents of the tuberous electrosensory system, the P-units, encode such AMs of the underlying EOD carrier in their time-dependent firing rates \cite{Bastian1981a,Walz2014}. P-units are heterogeneous in their baseline firing rates as well as in their intrinsic noise levels, as quantified by the coefficient of variation (CV) of the interspike intervals (ISI) \cite{Grewe2017, Hladnik2023}. Low-CV P-units have a less noisy firing pattern that is closer to pacemaker firing, whereas high-CV P-units show a more irregular firing pattern that is closer to a Poisson process. We start with exploring the influence of intrinsic noise on nonlinear encoding in P-units.
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\subsection*{Nonlinear signal transmission in low-CV P-units}
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Nonlinear encoding as quantified by the second-order susceptibility is expected to be especially pronounced in cells with weak intrinsic noise, i.e. low baseline CVs \cite{Voronenko2017}. P-units fire action potentials probabilistically phase-locked to the self-generated EOD \cite{Bastian1981a}. Skipping of EOD cycles leads to the characteristic multimodal ISI distribution with maxima at integer multiples of the EOD period (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{A}). In this example the baseline ISI distribution has a CV$_{\text{base}}$ of 0.2, which is at the lower end of the P-unit population \cite{Hladnik2023}. Spectral analysis of the baseline activity shows two major peaks: the first is located at the baseline firing rate \fbase, the second is located at the discharge frequency \feod{} of the electric organ and is flanked by two smaller peaks at $\feod \pm \fbase{}$ (\subfigref{fig:cells_suscept}{B}).
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\begin{figure*}[tp]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{cells_suscept}
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\caption{\label{fig:cells_suscept} Estimation of linear and nonlinear stimulus encoding in a low-CV P-unit (cell identifier ``2010-06-21-ai"). \figitem{A} Interspike interval (ISI) distribution of the cell's baseline activity, i.e. the cell is driven only by the unperturbed own electric field. The low CV of the ISIs indicates quite regular firing. \figitem{B} Power spectral density of the baseline response with peaks at the cell's baseline firing rate \fbase{} and the fish's EOD frequency \feod{}. \figitem{C} Random amplitude modulation stimulus (top, with cutoff frequency of 300\,Hz) and evoked responses (spike raster, bottom) of the same P-unit. The stimulus contrast (right) reflects the strength of the AM. \figitem{D} Gain of the transfer function (first-order susceptibility), \Eqnref{linearencoding_methods}, of the responses to 10\,\% (light purple) and 20\,\% contrast (dark purple) RAM stimulation. \figitem{E, F} Absolute value of the second-order susceptibility, \Eqnref{eq:susceptibility}, for both the low and high stimulus contrast. Pink triangles mark vertical, horizontal, and diagonal lines where \fone, \ftwo{} or \fsum{} are equal to \fbase{}. \figitem{G} Second-order susceptibilities projected onto the diagonal (means of all anti-diagonals of the matrices shown in \panel{E, F}). Dots mark \fbase{}, horizontal dashed lines mark medians of the projected susceptibilities. \notejb{``Calculated based on the first frozen noise repeat.'' Really? Only one trial has been used for computing the susceptibilities?} \noteab{Yes. In the population statistics of the last 20 years I was trying to maximize the number cells and maximize the duration. In the end the susceptibility is calculated based on 10 seconds. The susceptibility has to be calculated with newly initiated noise, with 10 seconds and 0.5 nfft durations this results in 20 trials. For the overview figure the mean of all NLI values for each frozen noise was calculated. It is not possible to take the mean over several frozen noise matrices since the baseline properties sometimes change and this disrupts the shape of the second order susceptibility.}}
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\end{figure*}
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Noise stimuli, here random amplitude modulations (RAM) of the EOD (\subfigref{fig:cells_suscept}{C}, top trace, red line), are commonly used to characterize stimulus driven responses of sensory neurons by means of transfer functions (first-order susceptibility), spike-triggered averages, or stimulus-response coherences. Here, we additionally estimate the second-order susceptibility to quantify nonlinear encoding. P-unit spikes align more or less clearly to fluctuations in the RAM stimulus. A higher stimulus intensity, here a higher contrast of the RAM relative to the EOD amplitude (see methods), entrains the P-unit response more clearly (light and dark purple for low and high contrast stimuli, \subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{C}). Linear encoding, quantified by the transfer function \Eqnref{linearencoding_methods}, is similar for the two RAM contrasts in this low-CV P-unit (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{D}), as expected for a linear system. The first-order susceptibility is low for low frequencies, peaks in the range below 100\,Hz and then falls off again \notejb{Cite Moe paper?}.
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The second-order susceptibility, \Eqnref{eq:susceptibility}, quantifies amplitude and phase of the stimulus-evoked response at the sum \fsum{} for each combination of two stimulus frequencies \fone{} and \ftwo{}. Large values of the second-order susceptibility indicate stimulus-evoked peaks in the response spectrum at the summed frequency that cannot be explained by linear response theory. Similar to the first-order susceptibility, the second-order susceptibility can be estimated directly from the response evoked by a RAM stimulus that simulates the neuron with a whole range of frequencies simultaneously (\subfigsref{fig:cells_suscept}{E, F}). For a LIF driven in the super-threshold regime with two sinewave stimuli, theory predicts nonlinear interactions between the two stimulus frequencies, when the two frequencies \fone{} and \ftwo{} or their sum \fsum{} excatly match the neuron's baseline firing rate \fbase{} \cite{Voronenko2017}. Only then, additional stimulus-evoked peaks appear in the spectrum of the spiking response that would show up in the second-order susceptibility as a horizontal, a vertical, and an anti-diagonal line (pink triangle in \subfigsref{fig:cells_suscept}{E, F}).
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% DAS GEHOERT IN DIE DISKUSSION:
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% To estimate the second-order susceptibility from the P-unit responses to RAM stimuli, the noise stimulus was set in relation to the corresponding neuronal response in the Fourier domain, resulting in a matrix in which the nonlinearity at the sum frequency \fsum{} in the firing rate is depicted for two noise frequencies \fone{} and \ftwo{} (\Eqnref{eq:susceptibility}, \subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{E--F}). The decomposition of the RAM stimulus into the frequency components allows us to approximate the beat frequencies $\Delta f$, occurring in case of pure sine-wave stimulation (\subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}). Thus, the nonlinearity accessed with the RAM stimulation at \fsum{} (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{E}) is similar to the nonlinearity appearing during pure sine-wave stimulation at \bsum{} (orange peak, \subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}).
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For the low-CV P-unit we observe a band of slightly elevated second-order susceptibility for the low RAM contrast at \fsumb{} (yellowish anti-diagonal between pink edges, \subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{E}). This structure vanishes for the stronger stimulus (\subfigref{fig:cells_suscept}{F}). Further, the overall level of the second-order susceptibility is reduced with increasing stimulus strength. To quantify the structural changes in the susceptibility matrices we projected susceptibility values onto the diagonal by taking the mean over all anti-diagonals (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{G}). For the low RAM contrast this projected second-order susceptibility indeed has a small peak at \fbase{} (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{G}, dot on top line). For the higher RAM contrast, however, this peak vanishes and the overall level of the second-order susceptibility is reduced (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{G}). The reason behind this reduction is that a RAM with a higher contrast is not only a stimulus with an increased amplitude, but also increases the total noise in the system. Increased noise is known to linearize signal transmission \cite{Longtin1993, Chialvo1997, Roddey2000, Voronenko2017} and thus the second-order susceptibility is expected to decrease.
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In contrast, a high-CV P-unit (CV$_{\text{base}}=0.4$) does not exhibit pronounced nonlinearities even at low stimulus contrasts (\figrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}).
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\begin{figure*}[t]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{ampullary}
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\caption{\label{fig:ampullary} Estimation of linear and nonlinear stimulus encoding in an ampullary afferent (cell identifier ``2012-04-26-ae"). \figitem{A} Interspike interval (ISI) distribution of the cell's baseline activity. The very low CV of the ISIs indicates almost perfect periodic spiking. \figitem{B} Power spectral density of baseline activity with peaks at the cell's baseline firing rate and its harmonics. \figitem{C} Bad-limited white noise stimulus (top, with cutoff frequency of 150\,Hz) added to the fish's self-generated electric field and spike raster of the evoked responses (bottom) for two stimulus contrasts as indicated (right). \figitem{D} Gain of the transfer function, \Eqnref{linearencoding_methods}, of the responses to stimulation with 2\,\% (light green) and 20\,\% contrast (dark green). \figitem{E, F} Absolute value of the second-order susceptibility, \Eqnref{eq:susceptibility}, for both stimulus contrasts as indicated. Pink triangles indicate baseline firing rate. \figitem{G} Projections of the second-order susceptibilities in \panel{E, F} onto the diagonal. \notejb{`` Calculated based on the first frozen noise repeat.''}
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}
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\end{figure*}
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\subsection*{Ampullary afferents exhibit strong nonlinear interactions}
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Irrespective of the CV, neither of the two example P-units shows the complete expected structure of nonlinear interactions. Electric fish posses an additional electrosensory system, the passive or ampullary electrosensory system, that responds to low-frequency exogeneous electric stimuli. The population of ampullary afferents is much less heterogeneous, and known for the much lower CVs of their baseline ISIs (CV$_{\text{base}}=0.06$--$0.22$)\cite{Grewe2017}. Ampullary cells do not phase-lock to the EOD and the ISIs are unimodally distributed (\subfigrefb{fig:ampullary}{A}). As a consequence of the high regularity of their baseline spiking activity, the corresponding power spectrum shows distinct peaks at the baseline firing rate \fbase{} and harmonics of it. Since the cells do not fire phase locked to the EOD, there is no peak at \feod{} (\subfigrefb{fig:ampullary}{B}). When driven by a low-contrast noise stimulus (note: this is not an AM but a stimulus that is added to the self-generated EOD, \subfigref{fig:ampullary}{C}), ampullary cells exhibit very pronounced bands in the second-order susceptibility, where \fsum{} is equal to \fbase{} or its harmonic (yellow diagonals in \subfigrefb{fig:ampullary}{E}), implying strong nonlinear response components at these frequency combinations (\subfigrefb{fig:ampullary}{G}, top). With higher stimulus contrasts these bands disappear (\subfigrefb{fig:ampullary}{F}), the projection onto the diagonal looses its distinct peak at \fsum{} and its overal level is reduced (\subfigrefb{fig:ampullary}{G}, bottom).
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\subsection*{Model-based estimation of the nonlinear structure}
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%Traces of the expected structure of second-order susceptibility are found in both ampullary and p-type electrosensory afferents.
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In the example recordings shown above (\figsrefb{fig:cells_suscept} and \fref{fig:ampullary}), we only observe nonlinear responses on the anti-diagnal of the second-order susceptibility, where the sum of the two stimulus frequencies matches the neuron's baseline firing rate, which is in line with theoretical expectations\cite{Voronenko2017}. However, a pronounced nonlinear response at frequencies \foneb{} or \ftwob{}, although predicted by theory, cannot be observed. Here we investigate how these discrepancies can be understood.
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\begin{figure*}[tp]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{model_and_data}
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\caption{\label{model_and_data} Estimating second-order susceptibilities in the limit of weak stimuli. \figitem{A} \suscept{} estimated from $N=11$ trials of an electrophysiological recording of the\notejb{same as in Fig 2?} \noteab{No it is a different cell. In this cell we do not have several contrasts recorded, but a model.} low-CV P-unit (cell 2012-07-03-ak, see table~\ref{modelparams} for model parameters) driven with a weak RAM stimulus. The stimulus strength was with 2.5\,\% contrast in the electrophysiologically recorded P-unit. The contrast for the P-unit model was with 0.009\,\%, thus reproducing the CV of the electrophysiolgoical recorded P-unit during the 2.5\,\% contrast stimulation. Pink edges mark baseline firing rate where enhanced nonlinear responses are expected. \figitem[i]{B} \textit{Standard condition} of model simulations with intrinsic noise (bottom) and a RAM stimulus (top). \figitem[ii]{B} \suscept{} estimated from simulations of the cell's LIF model counterpart (cell 2012-07-03-ak, table~\ref{modelparams}) based on the same number of trials as in the electrophysiological recording. \figitem[iii]{B} Same as \panel[ii]{B} but using $10^6$ stimulus repetitions. \figitem[i-iii]{C} Same as in \panel[i-iii]{B} but in the \textit{noise split} condition: there is no external RAM signal driving the model. Instead, a large part (90\,\%) of the total intrinsic noise is treated as signal and is presented as an equivalent amplitude modulation (\signalnoise, center), while the intrinsic noise is reduced to 10\,\% of its original strength (see methods for details). In addition to one million trials, this reveals the full expected structure of the second-order susceptibility. \notejb{to methods: ``Note that the signal component \signalnoise{} is added as an amplitude modulation and is thus limited with respect to its spectral content by the Nyquist frequency of the carrier, half the EOD frequency. It thus has a reduced high frequency content as compared to the intrinsic noise. Adding this discarded high frequency components to the intrinsic noise does not affect the results here (not shown).''}
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}
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\end{figure*}
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One reason could be simply too little data for a good estimate of the second-order susceptibility. Electrophysiological recordings are limited in time, and therefore responses to only a limited number of trials, i.e. repetitions of the same RAM stimulus, are available. As a consequence, the cross-spectra, \Eqnref{eq:crosshigh}, are insufficiently averaged and the full structure of the second-order susceptibility might be hidden in finite-data noise. This experimental limitation can be overcome by using a computational model for the P-unit, a stochastic leaky integrate-and-fire model with adaptation current and dendritic preprocessing, and parameters fitted to the experimentally recorded P-unit (\figrefb{flowchart}) \cite{Barayeu2023}. The model faithfully reproduces the second-order susceptibility of a low-CV cell estimated from the same low number of trials as in the experiment ($\n{}=11$, compare \panel{A} and \panel[ii]{B} in \figrefb{model_and_data}).
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In simulations of the model we can increase the number of trials beyond what would be experimentally possible, here to one million (\subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[iii]{B}). The estimate of the second-order susceptibility indeed improves. It gets less noisy and the diagonal at \fsum{} is emphasized. However, the expected vertical and horizontal lines at \foneb{} and \ftwob{} are still missing.
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Using a broadband stimulus increases the effective input-noise level and this may linearize signal transmission and suppress potential nonlinear responses \cite{Longtin1993, Chialvo1997, Roddey2000, Voronenko2017}. Assuming that the intrinsic noise level in this P-unit is small enough, the full expected structure of the second-order susceptibility should appear in the limit of weak AMs. Again, this cannot be done experimentally, because the problem of insufficient averaging becomes even more severe for weak AMs (low contrast). In the model, however, we know the time course of the intrinsic noise and can use this knowledge to determine the susceptibilities by input-output correlations via the Furutsu-Novikov theorem \cite{Furutsu1963, Novikov1965}. This theorem, in its simplest form, states that the cross-spectrum $S_{x\eta}(\omega)$ of a Gaussian noise $\eta(t)$ driving a nonlinear system and the system's output $x(t)$ is proportional to the linear susceptibility according to $S_{x\eta}(\omega)=\chi(\omega)S_{\eta\eta}(\omega)$. Here $\chi(\omega)$ characterizes the linear response to an infinitely weak signal $s(t)$ in the presence of the background noise $\eta(t)$. Likewise, the nonlinear susceptibility can be determined in an analogous fashion from higher-order input-output cross-spectra (see methods, equations \eqref{eq:crosshigh} and \eqref{eq:susceptibility}) \cite{Egerland2020}. In line with an alternative derivation of the Furutsu-Novikov theorem \cite{Lindner2022}, we can split the total noise and consider a fraction of it as stimulus. This allows to calculate the susceptibility from the cross-spectrum between the output and this stimulus fraction of the noise. Adapting this approach to our P-unit model (see methods), we replace the intrinsic noise by an approximately equivalent RAM stimulus $s_\xi(t)$ and a weak remaining intrinsic noise $\sqrt{2D \, c_{\rm{noise}}} \cdot \xi(t)$ with $c_\text{noise} = 0.1$ (see methods, equations \eqref{eq:ram_split}, \eqref{eq:Noise_split_intrinsic}, \eqref{eq:Noise_split_intrinsic_dendrite}, \subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[i]{C}). We tune the amplitude of the RAM stimulus $s_\xi(t)$ such that the output firing rate and variability (CV) are the same as in the baseline activity (i.e. full intrinsic noise $\sqrt{2D}\xi(t)$ in the voltage equation but no RAM) and compute the cross-spectra between the RAM part of the noise $s_\xi(t)$ and the output spike train. This procedure has two consequences: (i) by means of the cross-spectrum between the output and \signalnoise, which is a large fraction of the noise, the signal-to-noise ratio of the measured susceptibilities is drastically improved; (ii) the total noise in the system has been reduced (by what was before the external RAM stimulus $s(t)$), which makes the system more nonlinear. For both reasons we now see the expected nonlinear features in the second-order susceptibility for a sufficient number of trials (\subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[iii]{C}), but not for a number of trials comparable to the experiment (\subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[ii]{C}). In addition to the strong response for \fsumb{}, we now also observe pronounced nonlinear responses at \foneb{} and \ftwob{} (vertical and horizontal lines, \subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[iii]{C}).
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Note, that the increased number of trials goes along with a substantial reduction of second-order susceptibility values (\subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[iii]{C}), that saturate in its peak values for $N>10^5$ (\figrefb{fig:trialnr}). This demonstrates the limited reliability of an estimate of the second-order susceptibility that is based on 11 trials only. However, we would like to point out that already the limited number of trials as used in the experiments reveals key features of the nonlinear response.
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With high levels of intrinsic noise, we would not expect the nonlinear response features to survive. Indeed, we do not find these features in a high-CV P-unit and its corresponding model (not shown).
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\subsection*{Second-order susceptibility can explain nonlinear peaks in pure sinewave stimulation}
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We estimated the second-order susceptibility of P-unit responses using RAM stimuli. In particular, we found pronounced nonlinear responses in the limit of weak stimulus amplitudes. How do these findings relate to the situation of two pure sinewave stimuli with finite amplitudes that approximates the interference of EODs of real animals? For the P-units the relevant signals are the beat frequencies \bone{} and \btwo{} that arise from the interference of either of the two foreign EODs with the receiving fish's own EOD (\figref{fig:motivation}). In the introductory example, the response power spectrum showed peaks from nonlinear interactions at the sum of the two beat frequencies (orange marker, \subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}) and at the difference between the two beat frequencies (red marker, \subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}). In this example, $\Delta f_{2}$ was similar to \fbase{}, corresponding to the horizontal line of the second-order susceptibility estimated for a vanishing external RAM stimulus (\subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[iii]{C}). In the three-fish example, there was a second nonlinearity at the difference between the two beat frequencies (red dot, \subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}), that is not covered by the so-far shown part of the second-order susceptibility (\subfigrefb{model_and_data}\,\panel[iii]{C}), in which only the response at the sum of the two stimulus frequencies is addressed. % less prominent,
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\begin{figure*}[tp]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{model_full}
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\caption{\label{fig:model_full} Using second-order susceptibility to predict responses to sine-wave stimuli. \figitem[]{A} Absolute value of the second-order susceptibility, \Eqnref{eq:susceptibility}, for both positive and negative frequencies. \susceptf{} was estimated from $N=10^6$ trials of model simulations in the noise-split condition (cell 2012-07-03-ak, see table~\ref{modelparams} for model parameters). White lines indicate zero frequencies. Nonlinear responses at \fsum{} are quantified in the upper right and lower left quadrants. Nonlinear responses at \fdiff{} are quantified in the upper left and lower right quadrants. Baseline firing rate of this cell was at $\fbase=120$\,Hz. The position of the orange/red letters correspond to the beat frequencies used for the stimulation with pure sine-waves in the subsequent panels and indicate the sum/difference of those beat frequencies. \figitem[]{B} Absolute value of the first-order susceptibility. \figitem{C--F} Black line -- power spectral density of model simulations in response to stimulation with two pure sine waves, \fone{} and \ftwo, in addition to the receiving fish's own EOD (three fish scenario). The contrasts of beat beats is 0.0065. Colored circles highlight the height of selected peaks in the power spectrum. Black circles highlight the peak height that can be predicted from \panel{A, B}. Grey line -- power spectral density of model in the baseline condition. \figitem{B} The sum of the two beat frequencies match \fbase{}. \figitem{C} The difference of \fone{} and \ftwo{} match \fbase{}. \figitem{D} Only the first beat frequency matches \fbase{}. \figitem{C} None of the two beat frequencies matches \fbase{}. \noteab{Für die Transfer Funktion habe ich jetzt einen Faktor 1, für die Nichtlinearität einen Faktor 30, aber vielleicht wenn ich über mehrere Punkte mitteln muss und das alles so noisy ist das eben noch keine Gute Abschätzung in der Stauration?}}
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\end{figure*}
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However, the second-order susceptibility \Eqnref{eq:susceptibility} is a spectral measure that is based on Fourier transforms and thus is also defined for negative stimulus frequencies. The full \susceptf{} matrix is symmetric with respect to the origin. In the upper-right and lower-left quadrants of \susceptf{}, stimulus-evoked responses at \fsum{} are shown, whereas in the lower-right and upper-left quadrants nonlinear responses at the difference \fdiff{} are shown (\figref{fig:model_full}). The vertical and horizontal lines at \foneb{} and \ftwob{} are very pronounced in the upper-right quadrant of \subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{A} for nonlinear responses at \fsum{} and extend into the upper-left quadrant (representing \fdiff) where they fade out towards more negative $f_1$ frequencies. The peak in the response power-spectrum at \fdiff{} evoked by pure sine-wave stimulation (\subfigrefb{fig:motivation}{D}) is predicted by the horizontal line in the upper-left quadrant (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{A}, \cite{Schlungbaum2023}).
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Is it possible based on the second-order susceptibility estimated by means of RAM stimuli (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{A}) to predict nonlinear responses in a three-fish setting? We can test this by stimulating the same model with two beats with weak amplitudes (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{C--F}). If we choose a frequency combination where the sum of the two beat frequencies is equal to the model's baseline firing rate \fbase{}, a peak at the sum of the two beat frequencies appears in the power spectrum of the response (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{C}), as expected from \suscept. If instead we choose two beat frequencies that differ by \fbase{}, a peak is present at the difference frequency (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{D}). If only one beat frequency is equal to \fbase{}, both a peak at the sum and at the difference frequency is present in the P-unit response (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{E}). And if none of these conditions are met, neither a peak at the sum nor at the difference of the two beat frequencies appears (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{F}).
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\notejb{Note in the discussion that \suscept{} predicts stimulus evoked responses whereas in the power spectrum we see peaks even if they are unrelated to the stimulus. Like the baseline firing rate.}
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% TO DISCUSSION:
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%Even though the second-order susceptibilities here were estimated from data and models with an modulated (EOD) carrier (\figrefb{fig:model_full}) they are in good accordance with the second-order susceptibilities found in LIF models without a carrier\cite{Voronenko2017, Schlungbaum2023}.
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\begin{figure*}[tp]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{data_overview_mod}
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\caption{\label{fig:data_overview} Nonlinear responses in P-units and ampullary cells. The second-order susceptibility is condensed into the peakedness of the nonlinearity, \nli{} \Eqnref{eq:nli_equation}, that relates the amplitude of the projected susceptibility at a cell's baseline firing rate to its median (see \subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{G}). Each of the recorded neurons contributes at maximum with two stimulus contrasts. Black squares and circles highlight recordings conducted in a single cell. Squares in \panel{A, C, E} correspond to the cell in \figrefb{fig:cells_suscept} and circles to the cell in \figrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}. Squares in \panel{B, D, F} correspond to the cell in \figrefb{fig:ampullary}. \figitem{A, B} There is a negative correlation between the CV during baseline and \nli. \figitem{C, D} There is a negative correlation between the CV during stimulation and \nli. \figitem{E, F} \nli{} is plotted against the response modulation, (see methods), an indicator of the subjective stimulus strength for a cell. There is a negative correlation between response modulation and \nli. Restricting the analysis to the weakest stimulus that was presented to each unique neuron, does not change the results. The number of unique neurons is 221 for P-units and 45 for ampullary cells.
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% The two example P-units shown before are highlighted with dark markers in \subfigrefb{fig:data_overview}{A, C, E} (squares -- \figrefb{fig:cells_suscept}, circles -- \figrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}).
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% Several of the recorded neurons contribute with two samples to the population analysis as their responses have been recorded to two different contrast of the same RAM stimulus. Higher stimulus contrasts lead to a stronger drive and thus stronger response modulations (see color code bar in \subfigref{fig:data_overview}{A}, see methods).
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% The example cell shown above (\figref{fig:ampullary}) was recorded at two different stimulus intensities and the \nli{} values are highlighted with black squares.
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}
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\end{figure*}
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%\Eqnref{response_modulation}
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\subsection*{Low CVs and weak stimuli are associated with strong nonlinearity}
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All the statements about nonlinear encoding in p-type and ampullary electroreceptor afferents based on single cell examples shown above are supported by the analysis of our pool of 221 P-units and 47 ampullary afferents recorded in 71 specimen. For a comparison across cells we summarize the structure of the second-order susceptibilities in a single number, the peakedness of the nonlinearity \nli{} \Eqnref{eq:nli_equation}, that characterizes the size of the expected peak of the projections of a \suscept{} matrix onto its diagonal at the baseline firing rate (e.g. \subfigref{fig:cells_suscept}{G}). \nli{} assumes high values when the peak at \fbase{} is pronounced relative to the median of projections onto the diagonal and is small when there is no distinct peak. The \nli{} values of the P-unit population depend weakly on the CV of the baseline ISI distribution. Cells with lower baseline CVs tend to have more pronounced peaks in their projections than those that have high baseline CVs (\subfigrefb{fig:data_overview}{A}). This negative correlation is more pronounced against the CV measured during stimulation (\subfigrefb{fig:data_overview}{C}).
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The effective stimulus strength also plays an important role. We quantify the effect a stimulus has on a cell's response by the response modulation --- the standard deviation of a cell's firing rate in response to a RAM stimulus. P-units are heterogeneous in their sensitivity, their response modulations to the same stimulus contrast vary a lot \cite{Grewe2017}. Cells with weak responses to a stimulus, be it an insensitive cell or a weak stimulus, have higher \nli{} values and thus a more pronounced ridge in the second-order susceptibility at \fsumb{} in comparison to strongly responding cells that basically have flat second-order susceptibilities (\subfigrefb{fig:data_overview}{E}). How pronounced nonlinear response components are in P-units thus depends on the baseline CV (a proxy for the internal noise level), and both the CV and response strength during stimulation (effective output noise).
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%(Pearson's $r=-0.35$, $p<0.001$)221 P-units and 47 (Pearson's $r=-0.16$, $p<0.01$)
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%In a P-unit population where each cell is represented not by several contrasts but by the lowest recorded contrast, \nli{} significantly correlates with the CV during baseline ($r=-0.17$, $p=0.01$), the response modulation ($r=-0.35$, $p<0.001$) and \fbase{} ($r=-0.32$, $p<0.001$).%, $\n{}=221$*, $\n{}=221$******, $\n{}=221$
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The population of ampullary cells is generally more homogeneous, with lower baseline CVs than P-units. Accordingly, \nli{} values of ampullary cells are indeed much higher than in P-units by about a factor of ten. Ampullary cells also show a negative correlation with baseline CV. Again, sensitive cells with strong response modulations are at the bottom of the distribution and have \nli{} values close to one (\subfigrefb{fig:data_overview}{B, D}). The weaker the response modulation, because of less sensitive cells or weaker stimulus amplitudes, the stronger the nonlinear component of a cell's response (\subfigrefb{fig:data_overview}{F}).
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%(Pearson's $r=-0.35$, $p < 0.01$) (Pearson's $r=-0.59$, $p < 0.0001$)
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\section*{Discussion}
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Nonlinearities are ubiquitous in nervous systems, they are essential to extract certain features such as amplitude modulations of a carrier. Here, we analyzed the nonlinearity in primary electroreceptor afferents of the weakly electric fish \lepto{}. Under natural stimulus conditions, when the electric fields of two or more animals produce interference patterns that contain information of the context of the encounter, such nonlinear encoding is required to enable responding to AMs or also so-called envelopes. The work presented here is inspired by observations of electric fish interactions in the natural habitat. In these observed electrosensory cocktail-parties, a second male is intruding the conversations of a courting dyad. The courting male detects the intruder at a large distance where the foreign electric signal is strongly attenuated due to spatial distance and tiny compared to the signal emitted by the close-by female. Such a three-animal situation is exemplified in \figref{fig:motivation} for a rather specific combination of interfering EODs. There, we observe that the electroreceptor response contains components that result from nonlinear interference (\subfigref{fig:motivation}{D}) that might help to solve this detection task. Based on theoretical work we work out the circumstances under which electroreceptor afferents show such nonlinearities.
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%\,\panel[iii]{C}
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\subsection*{Theory applies to systems with and without carrier}
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Theoretical work\cite{Voronenko2017} explained analytically the occurrence of nonlinear products when a LIF model neuron is stimulated with pure sine-waves. To investigate whether the same mechanisms occur in electroreceptor afferents which are driven by AMs of a carrier and not by pure sine-waves, we followed the previous approach and quantified the second-order susceptibility from responses to white-noise stimuli \cite{Voronenko2017, Egerland2020, Neiman2011fish,Nikias1993}. We expected to see elevated second-order susceptibility where either of the foreign signals matches the baseline firing rate ($f_1=f_{base}$ or $f_2=f_{base}$) or when the sum equals the baseline firing rate of the neuron (\fsumb{}) creating a triangular pattern of elevated \suscept{} e.g.\,\subfigref{model_and_data}\,\panel[iii]{C}. Indeed, we find traces of the same nonlinearities in the neuronal responses of p-type electroreceptor afferents. The nonlinear pattern observed in the experimental data, however, matches to the expectations only partially and only in a subset of neurons (\figsref{fig:cells_suscept} and\,\ref{fig:ampullary}). Nevertheless, the theory holds also for systems that are driven by AMs of a carrier and is thus more widely applicable.
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\subsection*{Intrinsic noise limits nonlinear responses}
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Only those P-units that exhibit low coefficients of variation (CV) of the interspike-interval distribution (\subfigref{fig:cells_suscept}{A}) in their unperturbed baseline response show the expected nonlinerities (\subfigref{fig:data_overview}{A}). Such low-CV cells are rare among the 221 P-units that we used in this study. The afferents of the passive electrosensory system, the ampullary cells, however have generally lower CVs and show a much clearer nonlinearity pattern than the low-CV P-unit exemplified here (compare \figsref{fig:cells_suscept} and \ref{fig:ampullary}). The single ampullary cell featured in \figref{fig:ampullary} is a representative of the majority of ampullary cells analyzed here. All ampullary cells have CVs below 0.4 with a median around 0.12 and the observed \nli{}s are 10-fold higher than in P-units.
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The CV serves as a proxy for the intrinsic noise in the cells. In both cell types, we observe a negative correlation between \nli{} and the CV, indicating that it is the level of intrinsic noise that plays a role here. These findings are in line with previous studies that propose that noise linearizes the system\cite{Roddey2000, Chialvo1997, Voronenko2017}. More intrinsic noise has been demonstrated to increase the CV and reduce nonlinear phase-locking in vestibular afferents\cite{Schneider2011}. Reduced noise, on the other hand, has been associated with stronger nonlinearity in pyramidal cells of the ELL\cite{Chacron2006}. Further support for the notion of noise limiting the nonlinearity comes from our P-unit LIF model that faithfully reproduces P-unit activity\cite{Barayeu2023}. We can use this model and apply a noise-split \cite{Lindner2022} based on the to the Furutsu-Novikov theorem\cite{Novikov1965,Furutsu1963}, to increase the signal-to-noise ratio in the cell while keeping the overall response variability constant (see methods). Treating 90\,\% of the total noise as signal and simulating large numbers of trial uncovers the full nonlinear structure (\figref{model_and_data}) seen in LIF neurons and the analytical derivations when driven with sine-wave stimuli\cite{Voronenko2017}.
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%
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\subsection*{Noise stimulation approximates the real three-fish interaction}
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Our analysis is based on the neuronal responses to white noise stimulus sequences. For the P-units, the stimulus was a random amplitude modulation (RAM) while it was a direct noise stimulus for the ampullary cells. These broad-band stimuli have the advantage that all behaviorally relevant frequencies can be measured with a single stimulus presentation and it is a widely used approach to characterize sensory coding\cite{French1973,Marmarelis1999, Borst1999, Chacron2005, Grewe2017}. However, these stimuli also increase the total level of noise in the system and may have a linearizing effect on signal transmission. In a our P-unit models, we were able to make use of the Furutsu-Novikov theorem to estimate nonlinear signal transmission for zero-amplitude stimulation. Only with this procedure and many trials, we find for low-CV P-units all the pronounced ridges in the second-order susceptibility that we would expect according to theory \cite{Voronenko2017}.
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In the natural situation, the stimuli are periodic signals defined by the difference frequencies. How well can we extrapolate from the white noise analysis to the pure sinewave situation? \notejg{Predictions from the X2 matrix and the equations in Voronekov}
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In contrast to the situation with individual frequencies (direct sine-waves or sinusoidal AMs) during noise stimulation the total power of the stimulus is equally distributed on all frequencies leading to a weaker signal-to-noise ratio. This explains that the nonlinearity pattern in the electroreceptor recordings only partially matches the expectation (\figsref{fig:cells_suscept},\,\ref{fig:ampullary}) while the single-frequency stimulation shows nonlinear interference when the individual stimulus frequencies ($f_1, f_2, \Delta f_1, \Delta f_2$) match the baseline firing rate (\figref{fig:motivation}, \subfigref{fig:model_full}{B--E}). With the noise-splitting trick, we could show that in low-CV cells, that have a low-CV and are not subject to strong stimulation, the full nonlinearity pattern is present but covered by the intrinsic noise. We thus conclude that the presence of the anti-diagonal pattern in the \suscept{} matrix is sufficient to conclude that the same nonlinear interactions happen here. This also validates the application of the white noise approach to characterize the full \suscept{} matrix instead of using all combinations of individual frequencies.
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% The nonlinearity of ampullary cells in paddlefish \cite{Neiman2011fish} has been previously accessed with bandpass limited white noise.
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% Here it was demonstrated that the second-order susceptibility for the two RAM noise input frequencies \fone{} and \ftwo{} can approximate a three-fish setting, where the driving force for the P-unit are two beats with frequencies \bone{} and \btwo{}. This was confirmed by a low-CV P-unit, where nonlinearities in the P-unit response occurred at the sum and difference of the beat frequencies for pure sine-wave stimulation (\figrefb{fig:motivation}). In this P-unit the nonlinearity appeared in a three-wave setting with \bone{} being close to \fbase{}, corresponding to a frequency combination on the vertical line at \foneb{} in the second-order susceptibility (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{B}). This implies that even if only the diagonal structure can be accessed with noise stimulation in the second-order susceptibility in an experiment (\subfigrefb{fig:model_full}{A}), it can be taken as an indicator that the whole nonlinear structure should be present during pure sine-wave stimulation in the same cell. With this RAM stimulation was demonstrated to be an effective method to scan the three-fish or two-beat plane and estimate the whole theoretically predicted nonlinear structure in experimentally recorded cells.
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\subsection*{Selective readout versus integration of heterogeneous populations}% Nonlinearity might be influenced once integrating from a P-unit population with heterogeneous baseline properties}%Heterogeneity of P-units might influence
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The observed nonlinear effects might facilitate the detectability of faint signals during a three fish setting, the electrosensory cocktail party. These nonlinear effects are, however, very specific with respect to the relation of stimulus frequencies and the P-unit baseline frequency. The EOD frequencies of the interacting fish would be drawn from the distributions of EOD frequencies found in male and female fish\cite{Hopkins1974Eigen, Meyer1987, Henninger2018, Henninger2020}. To be behaviorally relevant the faint signal detection would require reliable neuronal signaling irrespective of the individual EOD frequencies.
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P-units, however are very heterogeneous in their baseline firing properties\cite{Grewe2017, Hladnik2023}. The baseline firing rates vary in wide ranges (50--450\,Hz). This range covers substantial parts of the beat frequencies that may occur during animal interactions which is limited to frequencies below the Nyquist frequency (0 -- \feod/2)\cite{Barayeu2023}. It is thus likely that there are P-units which match approximately to the specificities of the different encounters.
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On the other hand, the nonlinearity was found only in low-CV P-units (with white noise stimulation). The CVs are also very heterogeneous (0.1--1.4, \figref{fig:data_overview}\panel{A}) in our sample. Only a small fraction of the P-units has a sufficiently low level of intrinsic noise and will exhibit nonlinear responses. The P-units project to the ELL\cite{Krahe2014} and the integrating pyramidal cells in the different segments receive inputs in the range of 10s to 1000s of neurons\cite{Maler2009a}. Since the receptive fields of the pyramidal neurons are patches of adjacent receptors on the fish's body surface \cite{Bastian2002, Maler2009a, Haggard2023} and the input heterogeneity does not depend on the location of the receptor on the fish body \cite{Hladnik2023} the pyramidal cell input population will be heterogeneous. Heterogeneity was shown to be generally advantageous for the encoding in this\cite{Hladnik2023} and other systems\cite{Padmanabhan2010, Beiran2018}. At the same time it contradicts the apparent need for a selective readout of low-CV cells to maintain information arising through nonlinear interactions.
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A possible readout mechanism should be the topic of future studies that need to take into account that the nonlinearities are stronger in pure sine-wave stimulation and the fraction of cells that show it under naturalistic stimulation might be larger than expected from the distribution of CVs.
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\subsection*{Behavioral relevance of nonlinear interactions}
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The behavioral relevance of the weak signal detection in P-units is evident from the courtship context observed in freely interacting animals\cite{Henninger2018}. Outside courtship behavior, the encoding of secondary or social envelopes is a common need\cite{Stamper2012Envelope}. In a previous study it was demonstrated that information about low-frequency secondary envelopes would not be present in P-units' responses but would arise thorough nonlinear processing downstream in the ELL \cite{Middleton2006,Middleton2007}. Based on our work we would predict that only a small subset of cells, with low CVs, should encode the social envelopes under white noise stimulation. An absence of low-CVs cells in the population analyzed in the previous studies could explain their conclusions. On the other hand, another study showed that P-units with strong nonlinearities, low firing rates and high CVs could indeed encode social envelopes\cite{Savard2011}. These findings are in contrast to the previously mentioned work\cite{Middleton2007} and, at first glance, also to our results. The missing link, that has not been considered in this work, might be the bursting of P-units, the repeated firing of spikes after one EOD period interleaved with longer intervals of quietness\cite{Chacron2004}. Bursting was not explicitly addressed in the previous work, still the reported high CVs of the envelope encoding P-units indicate a higher rate of bursting\cite{Savard2011}. How bursts influence the second-order susceptibility of P-units will be addressed in following works (in preparation). Note that in this work we operated in a regime of weak stimuli and that the envelope encoding addressed in \cite{Savard2011,Middleton2007} operates in a regime of strong stimuli, where the firing rate is saturated. The exact transition from the nonlinearities in a regime of weak stimuli to a regime of strong stimuli could be addressed in further P-unit studies.
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Sinusoidal AMs are relevant in interactions with a few fish. We can understand the noise as the presence of many animals with individual EOD frequencies at the same time. Under noise stimulation, nonlinearities were demonstrated to be strong for weak stimuli but were shown to decrease for stronger noise stimuli (\figrefb{fig:cells_suscept}). As long as the noise signal is weak, those fish are distant and the nonlinearity is maintained. An increasing stimulus amplitude would indicate that many fish are close to the receiver and a decrease of nonlinear effects can be observed. These findings imply that the nonlinear effects arising in the presence of three fish decline the more fish join. \lepto{} usually prefers small groups of fish\cite{Stamper2010}. Thus, the described second-order susceptibility might still be behaviorally relevant under natural conditions. The decline of nonlinear effects when several fish are present might be an adaptive process reducing the number of frequencies represented in its primary sensory afferents to a minimum. Such representation would still leave room to create nonlinear effects at later processing steps in higher-order neurons.
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The afferents of the passive electrosensory system, the ampullary cells, were found to exhibit much stronger nonlinearities than P-units (\figref{fig:data_overview}). The adequate stimulus for this system is a direct stimulation not an amplitude modulation. In this sense the ampullary cells are closer to the LIF models used by Voroneko and colleagues\cite{Voronenko2017} and we can thus expect that the same nonlinear mechanisms are at work here. For the ampullary system, the sinewave stimulation is not as relevant as for the P-unit system. Ampullary cells encode low-frequency exogenous electric signals such as muscle potentials induced by prey movement\cite{Kalmijn1974, Engelmann2010, Neiman2011fish}. The simultaneous muscle activity of a swarm of prey (such as \textit{Daphnia}) resembles Gaussian white noise\cite{Neiman2011fish}, similar to the stimuli used here. Our results show some similarities with the analyses by Neiman and Russel\cite{Neiman2011fish} who study the encoding in ampullary afferents in the paddlefish. There, the power spectrum of the spontaneous activity also shows a peak at the baseline frequency (internal oscillator) but also at the oscillation frequency measured at the epithelium and interactions of both. Most of the latter disappear in the case of external stimulation, though. Here we find only peaks at the baseline frequency of the neuron and its harmonics. There are interesting similarities and dissimilarities; stimulus encoding in the paddlefish as well as in the brown ghost is very linear for low frequencies and there are nonlinearities in both systems. Linear encoding in the paddlefish shows a gap in the spectrum at the frequency of the epitheliar oscillation, instead the nonlinear response is very pronounced there. In \lepto{}, the dominating frequency under baseline conditions is the baseline firing rate, and we do see increased nonlinearity in this frequency range. The baseline frequency, however, is outside the linear coding range\cite{Grewe2017} while it is within the linear coding range in paddlefish\cite{Neiman2011fish}. Interestingly, the nonlinear response in the paddlefish ampullaries increases with stimulus intensity while it disappears in our case (\subfigrefb{fig:data_overview}{F}). The population of ampullary cells is much more homogeneous with respect to the baseline rate (131$\pm$29\,Hz) and stimulus encoding properties than the P-units\cite{Grewe2017}. This implies that, if the stimulus contains the appropriate frequency components that sum up to the baseline rate, there should be a nonlinear response at a frequency that is similar for the full population of ampullary cells (the baseline frequency) that is outside the linear coding range. Postsynaptic cells integrating ampullary input might be able to extract this nonlinear response from the input population. How such nonlinear effects in ampullary cells might influence prey detection should be addressed in further studies.
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\subsection*{Conclusion}
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We have demonstrated that there are pronounced nonlinear responses in the primary electrosensory afferences of the weakly electric fish \lepto{}, systems that are very often characterized using linear methods. The observed nonlinearities match the expectations from previous theoretical studies\cite{Voronenko2017}. We can confirm that the theory applies also to systems that are encoding amplitude modulations of a carrier signal. Comparisons of P-units and ampullary cells showed that it is the level of intrinsic noise that determines how strongly nonlinear the system acts. Using the second-oder susceptibility estimated from the responses to white noise stimuli provides an easy way to determine the nonlinearity of the system under study. P-units share several features with mammalian
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auditory nerve fibers and such nonlinear effects might also be expected in the auditory system during the encoding of amplitude modulations \cite{Joris2004}.
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\section*{Methods}
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\subsection*{Experimental subjects and procedures}
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Within this project we re-evaluated datasets that were recorded between 2010 and 2023 at the Ludwig Maximilian University (LMU) M\"unchen and the Eberhard-Karls University T\"ubingen. All experimental protocols complied with national and European law and were approved by the respective Ethics Committees of the Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München (permit no. 55.2-1-54-2531-135-09) and the Eberhard-Karls Unversität Tübingen (permit no. ZP 1/13 and ZP 1/16).
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The final sample consisted of 221 P-units and 47 ampullary electroreceptor afferents recorded in 71 weakly electric fish of the species \lepto{}. The original electrophysiological recordings were performed on male and female weakly electric fish of the species \lepto{} that were obtained from a commercial supplier for tropical fish (Aquarium Glaser GmbH, Rodgau,
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Germany). The fish were kept in tanks with a water temperature of $25\pm1\,^\circ$C and a conductivity of around $270\,\micro\siemens\per\centi\meter$ under a 12\,h:12\,h light-dark cycle.
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Before surgery, the animals were deeply anesthetized via bath application with a solution of MS222 (120\,mg/l, PharmaQ, Fordingbridge, UK) buffered with Sodium Bicarbonate (120\,mg/l). The posterior anterior lateral line nerve (pALLN) was exposed by making a small cut into the skin covering the nerve. The cut was placed dorsal of the operculum just before the nerve descends towards the anterior lateral line ganglion (ALLNG). Those parts of the skin that were to be cut were locally anesthetized by cutaneous application of liquid lidocaine hydrochloride (20\,mg/ml, bela-pharm GmbH). During the surgery water supply was ensured by a mouthpiece to maintain anesthesia with a solution of MS222 (100\,mg/l) buffered with Sodium Bicarbonate (100\,mg/l). After surgery fish were immobilized by intramuscular injection of from 25\,$\micro$l to 50\,$\micro$l of tubocurarine (5\,mg/ml dissolved in fish saline; Sigma-Aldrich).
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Respiration was then switched to normal tank water and the fish was transferred to the experimental tank.
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\subsection*{Experimental setup}
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For the recordings fish were positioned centrally in the experimental tank, with the major parts of their body submerged into the water. Those body parts that were above the water surface were covered with paper tissue to avoid drying of the skin. Local analgesia was refreshed in intervals of two hours by cutaneous reapplication of Lidocaine (2\,\%; bela-pharm, Vechta, Germany) around the surgical wounds. Electrodes (borosilicate; 1.5\,mm outer diameter; GB150F-8P; Science Products, Hofheim, Germany) were pulled to a resistance of 50--100\,\mega\ohm{} (model P-97; Sutter Instrument, Novato, CA) and filled with 1\,M KCl solution. Electrodes were fixed in a microdrive (Luigs-Neumann, Ratingen, Germany) and lowered into the nerve (\figrefb{fig:setup}, blue triangle). Recordings of electroreceptor afferents were amplified and lowpass filtered at 10\,kHz (SEC-05, npi-electronics, Tamm, Germany, operated in bridge mode). All signals, neuronal recordings, recorded EOD and the generated stimulus, were digitized with sampling rates of 20 or 40\,kHz (PCI-6229, National Instruments, Austin, TX). RELACS (\url{www.relacs.net}) running on a Linux computer was used for online spike and EOD detection, stimulus generation, and calibration. Recorded data was then stored on the hard drive for offline analysis.
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\subsection*{Identification of P-units and ampullary cells}
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The neurons were classified into cell types during the recording by the experimenter. P-units were classified based on baseline firing rates of 50--450\,Hz and a clear phase-locking to the EOD and their responses to amplitude modulations of their own EOD\cite{Grewe2017, Hladnik2023}. Ampullary cells were classified based on firing rates of 80--200\,Hz absent phase-locking to the EOD and responses to low-frequency sinusoidal stimuli\cite{Grewe2017}. We here selected only those cells of which the neuron's baseline activity as well as the responses to frozen noise stimuli were recorded.
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\subsection*{Electric field recordings}
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The electric field of the fish was recorded in two ways: 1. we measured the so-called \textit{global EOD} with two vertical carbon rods ($11\,\centi\meter$ long, 8\,mm diameter) in a head-tail configuration (\figrefb{fig:setup}, green bars). The electrodes were placed isopotential to the stimulus. This signal was differentially amplified with a factor between 100 and 500 (depending on the recorded animal) and band-pass filtered (3 to 1500\,Hz pass-band, DPA2-FX; npi electronics, Tamm, Germany). 2. The so-called \textit{local EOD} was measured with 1\,cm-spaced silver wires located next to the left gill of the fish and orthogonal to the fish's longitudinal body axis (amplification 100 to 500 times, band-pass filtered with 3 to 1\,500\,Hz pass-band, DPA2-FX; npi-electronics, Tamm, Germany, \figrefb{fig:setup}, red markers). This local measurement recorded the combination of the fish's own field and the applied stimulus and thus serves as a proxy of the transdermal potential that drives the electroreceptors.
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\subsection*{Stimulation}
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The stimulus was isolated from the ground (ISO-02V, npi-electronics, Tamm, Germany) and delivered via two horizontal carbon rods (30 cm length, 8 mm diameter) located $15\,\centi\meter$ laterally to the fish (\figrefb{fig:setup}, gray bars). The stimulus was calibrated with respect to the local EOD.
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\begin{figure*}[!ht]%(\subfigrefb{beat_amplitudes}{B}).
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{Settup}
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\caption{\label{fig:setup} Electrophysiolocical recording setup. The fish, depicted as a black scheme and surrounded by isopotential lines, was positioned in the center of the tank. Blue triangle -- electrophysiological recordings were conducted in the posterior anterior lateral line nerve (pALLN). Gray horizontal bars -- electrodes for the stimulation. Green vertical bars -- electrodes to measure the \textit{global EOD} placed isopotential to the stimulus, i.e. recording fish's unperturbed EOD. Red dots -- electrodes to measure the \textit{local EOD} picking up the combination of fish's EOD and the stimulus. The local EOD was measured with a distance of 1 \,cm between the electrodes. All measured signals were amplified, filtered, and stored for offline analysis.}
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\end{figure*}
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\subsection*{White noise stimulation}\label{rammethods}
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The fish were stimulated with band-limited white noise stimuli with a cut-off frequency of 150, 300 or 400\,Hz. The stimulus intensity is given as the contrast, i.e. the standard deviation of the white noise stimulus in relation to the fish's EOD amplitude. The contrast varied between 1 and 20\,\%. Only cell recordings with at least 10\,s of white noise stimulation were included for the analysis. When ampullary cells were recorded, the white noise was directly applied as the stimulus. To create random amplitude modulations (RAM) for P-unit recordings, the EOD of the fish was multiplied with the desired random amplitude modulation profile (MXS-01M; npi electronics).
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% and between 2.5 and 40\,\% for \eigen
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\subsection*{Data analysis} Data analysis was performed with Python 3 using the packages matplotlib\cite{Hunter2007}, numpy\cite{Walt2011}, scipy\cite{scipy2020}, pandas\cite{Mckinney2010}, nixio\cite{Stoewer2014}, and thunderfish (\url{https://github.com/bendalab/thunderfish}).
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%sklearn\cite{scikitlearn2011},
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\paragraph{Baseline analysis}\label{baselinemethods}
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The baseline firing rate \fbase{} was calculated as the number of spikes divided by the duration of the baseline recording (on average 18\,s). The coefficient of variation (CV) was calculated as the standard deviation of the interspike intervals (ISI) divided by the average ISI: $\rm{CV} = \sqrt{\langle (ISI- \langle ISI \rangle) ^2 \rangle} / \langle ISI \rangle$. If the baseline was recorded several times in a recording, the average \fbase{} and CV were calculated.
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\paragraph{White noise analysis} \label{response_modulation}
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In the stimulus driven case, the neuronal activity of the recorded cell is modulated around the average firing rate that is similar to \fbase{} and in that way encodes the time-course of the stimulus.
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The time-dependent response of the neuron was estimated from the spiking activity
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\begin{equation}\label{eq:spikes}
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x_k(t) = \sum_i\delta(t-t_{k,i})
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\end{equation}
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recorded for each stimulus presentation, $k$, by kernel convolution with a Gaussian kernel
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\begin{equation}
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K(t) = \scriptstyle \frac{1}{\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}} e^{-\frac{t^2}{2\sigma^2}}
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\end{equation}
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with $\sigma$ the standard deviation of the Gaussian which was set to 2.5\,ms if not stated otherwise. For each trial $k$ the $x_k(t)$ is convolved with the kernel $K(t)$
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\begin{equation}
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r_k(t) = x_k(t) * K(t) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} x_k(t') K(t-t') \, \mathrm{d}t' \;,
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\end{equation}
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where $*$ denotes the convolution. $r(t)$ is then calculated as the across-trial average
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\begin{equation}
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r(t) = \left\langle r_k(t) \right\rangle _k.
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\end{equation}
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To quantify how strongly the neuron is driven by the stimulus we quantified the response modulation as the standard deviation $\sigma_{M} = \sqrt{\langle (r(t)-\langle r(t) \rangle_t)^2\rangle_t}$, where $\langle \cdot \rangle_t$ indicates averaging over time.
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\paragraph{Spectral analysis}\label{susceptibility_methods}
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The neuron is driven by the stimulus and thus the spiking response $x(t)$, \Eqnref{eq:spikes}, depends on the stimulus $s(t)$. To investigate the relation between stimulus and response we calculated the first- and second-order susceptibility of the neuron to the stimulus in the frequency domain. The Fourier transforms of $s(t)$ and $x(t)$ are denoted as $\tilde s(\omega)$ and $\tilde x(\omega)$ and were calculated according to $\tilde x(\omega) = \int_{0}^{T} \, x(t) \cdot e^{- i \omega t}\,dt$, with $T$ being the signal duration. Stimuli had a duration of 10\,s and spectra of stimulus and response were calculated in separate segments of 0.5\,s with no overlap resulting in a spectral resolution of 2\,Hz.
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The power spectrum of the stimulus $s(t)$ was calculated as
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\begin{equation}
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\label{powereq}
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\begin{split}
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S_{ss}(\omega) = \frac{\langle \tilde s(\omega) \tilde s^* (\omega)\rangle}{T}
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\end{split}
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\end{equation}
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with $\tilde s^* $ being the complex conjugate and $\langle ... \rangle$ denoting averaging over the segments. The power spectrum of the spike trains $S_{xx}(\omega)$ was calculated accordingly. The cross-spectrum $S_{xs}(\omega)$ between stimulus and evoked spike trains was calculated according to
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\begin{equation}
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\label{cross}
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\begin{split}
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S_{xs}(\omega) = \frac{\langle \tilde x(\omega) \tilde s^* (\omega)\rangle}{T}
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\end{split}
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\end{equation}
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From $S_{xs}(\omega)$ and $ S_{ss}(\omega)$ we calculated the linear susceptibility (transfer function) as
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\begin{equation}
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\label{linearencoding_methods}
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\begin{split}
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\chi_{1}(\omega) = \frac{S_{xs}(\omega) }{S_{ss}(\omega) }
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\end{split}
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\end{equation}
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The second-order cross-spectrum that depends on the two frequencies $\omega_1$ and $\omega_2$ was calculated according to
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:crosshigh}
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S_{xss} (\omega_{1},\omega_{2}) = \frac{\langle \tilde x (\omega_{1}+\omega_{2}) \tilde s^* (\omega_{1})\tilde s^* (\omega_{2}) \rangle}{T}
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\end{equation}
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The second-order susceptibility was calculated by dividing the higher-order cross-spectrum by the spectral power at the respective frequencies.
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:susceptibility}
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%\begin{split}
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\chi_{2}(\omega_{1}, \omega_{2}) = \frac{S_{xss} (\omega_{1},\omega_{2})}{2S_{ss} (\omega_{1}) S_{ss} (\omega_{2})}
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%\end{split}
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\end{equation}
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% Applying the Fourier transform this can be rewritten resulting in:
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% \begin{equation}
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% \label{susceptibility}
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% \begin{split}
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% \chi_{2}(\omega_{1}, \omega_{2}) = \frac{TN \sum_{n=1}^N \int_{0}^{T} dt\,r_{n}(t) e^{-i(\omega_{1}+\omega_{2})t} \int_{0}^{T}dt'\,s_{n}(t')e^{i \omega_{1}t'} \int_{0}^{T} dt''\,s_{n}(t'')e^{i \omega_{2}t''}}{2 \sum_{n=1}^N \int_{0}^{T} dt\, s_{n}(t)e^{-i \omega_{1}t} \int_{0}^{T} dt'\,s_{n}(t')e^{i \omega_{1}t'} \sum_{n=1}^N \int_{0}^{T} dt\,s_{n}(t)e^{-i \omega_{2}t} \int_{0}^{T} dt'\,s_{n}(t')e^{i \omega_{2}t'}}
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% \end{split}
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% \end{equation}
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The absolute value of a second-order susceptibility matrix is visualized in \figrefb{fig:model_full}. There the upper right and the lower left quadrants characterize the nonlinearity in the response $x(t)$ at the sum frequency of the two input frequencies. The lower right and upper left quadrants characterize the nonlinearity in the response $x(t)$ at the difference of the input frequencies.
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\paragraph{Nonlinearity index}\label{projected_method}
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We expect to see nonlinear susceptibility when $\omega_1 + \omega_2 = \fbase{}$. To characterize this we calculated the peakedness of the nonlinearity (PNL) as
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:nli_equation}
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\nli{} = \frac{ \max D(\fbase{}-5\,\rm{Hz} \leq f \leq \fbase{}+5\,\rm{Hz})}{\mathrm{med}(D(f))}
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\end{equation}
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For this index, the second-order susceptibility matrix was projected onto the diagonal $D(f)$, by taking the mean of the anti-diagonals. The peakedness at the frequency $\fbase{}$ in $D(f)$ was quantified by finding the maximum of $D(f)$ in the range $\fbase{} \pm 5$\,Hz (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept}{G}) and dividing it by the median of $D(f)$.
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If the same frozen noise was recorded several times in a cell, each noise repetition resulted in a separate second-order susceptibility matrix. The mean of the corresponding \nli{} values was used for the population statistics in \figref{fig:data_overview}.
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\subsection*{Leaky integrate-and-fire models}\label{lifmethods}
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Leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) models with a carrier were constructed to reproduce the specific firing properties of P-units \cite{Chacron2001,Sinz2020}. The sole driving input into the P-unit model during baseline, i.e. when no external stimulus was given, is the fish's own EOD modeled as a cosine wave
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:eod}
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\carrierinput = y_{EOD}(t) = \cos(2\pi f_{EOD} t)
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\end{equation}
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with the EOD frequency $f_{EOD}$ and an amplitude normalized to one.
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In the model, the input \carrierinput{} was then first thresholded to model the synapse between the primary receptor cells and the afferent.
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:threshold2}
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\lfloor \carrierinput \rfloor_0 = \left\{ \begin{array}{rcl} \carrierinput & ; & \carrierinput \ge 0 \\ 0 & ; & \carrierinput < 0 \end{array} \right.
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\end{equation}
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$\lfloor \carrierinput \rfloor_{0}$ denotes the threshold operation that sets negative values to zero (\subfigrefb{flowchart}{A}).
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The resulting receptor signal was then low-pass filtered to approximate passive signal conduction in the afferent's dendrite (\subfigrefb{flowchart}{B})
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:dendrite}
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\tau_{d} \frac{d V_{d}}{d t} = -V_{d}+ \lfloor \carrierinput \rfloor_{0}
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\end{equation}
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with $\tau_{d}$ as the dendritic time constant. Dendritic low-pass filtering was necessary to reproduce the loose coupling of P-unit spikes to the EOD while maintaining high sensitivity at small amplitude modulations. Because the input was dimensionless, the dendritic voltage was dimensionless, too. The combination of threshold and low-pass filtering extracts the amplitude modulation of the input \carrierinput.
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The dendritic voltage $V_d(t)$ was the input to a leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) model
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:LIF}
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\tau_{m} \frac{d V_{m}}{d t} = - V_{m} + \mu + \alpha V_{d} - A + \sqrt{2D}\xi(t)
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\end{equation}
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where $\tau_{m}$ is the membrane time-constant, $\mu$ is a fixed bias current, $\alpha$ is a scaling factor for $V_{d}$, $A$ is an inhibiting adaptation current, and $\sqrt{2D}\xi(t)$ is a white noise with strength $D$. All state variables except $\tau_m$ are dimensionless.
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The adaptation current $A$ followed
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:adaptation}
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\tau_{A} \frac{d A}{d t} = - A
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\end{equation}
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with adaptation time constant $\tau_A$.
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Whenever the membrane voltage $V_m(t)$ crossed the spiking threshold $\theta=1$ a spike was generated, $V_{m}(t)$ was reset to $0$, the adaptation current was incremented by $\Delta A$, and integration of $V_m(t)$ was paused for the duration of a refractory period $t_{ref}$ (\subfigrefb{flowchart}{D}).
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\begin{equation}
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\label{spikethresh}
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|
V_m(t) \ge \theta \; : \left\{ \begin{array}{rcl} V_m & \mapsto & 0 \\ A & \mapsto & A + \Delta A/\tau_A \end{array} \right.
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\end{equation}
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% The static nonlinearity $f(V_m)$ was equal to zero for the LIF. In the case of an exponential integrate-and-fire model (EIF), this function was set to
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% \begin{equation}
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% \label{eifnl}
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% f(V_m)= \Delta_V \text{e}^{\frac{V_m-1}{\Delta_V}}
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% \end{equation}
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% \cite{Fourcaud-Trocme2003}, where $\Delta_V$ was varied from 0.001 to 0.1.
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%, \figrefb{eif}
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\begin{figure*}[!ht]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{flowchart}
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\caption{\label{flowchart}
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Flowchart of a LIF P-unit model with EOD carrier. The main steps of the model are depicted in the left model column (Model cell identifier 2012-07-03-ak, see table~\ref{modelparams} for model parameters). The three other columns show the relevant signals in three different settings. (i) the baseline situation, no external stimulus, only the animal's self-generated EOD (i.e. the carrier) is present (ii) RAM stimulation, the carrier is amplitude modulated with a weak (2\,\% contrast) stimulus, (iii) Noise split condition in which 90\,\% of the internal noise is used as a driving stimulus scaled with the correction factor $\rho$ (see text). Note: that the firing rate and the CV of the ISI distribution is the same in this and the baseline condition. \figitem{A} Thresholding: a simple linear threshold was applied to the EOD carrier, \Eqnref{eq:eod}. The red line on top depicts the amplitude modulation (AM). \figitem{B} Dendritic low-pass filtering attenuates the carrier. \figitem{C} A Gaussian noise is added to the signal in B. Note the reduced internal noise amplitude in the noise split (iii) condition. \figitem{D} Spiking output of the LIF model in response to the addition of B and C. \figitem{E} Power spectra of the LIF neuron's spiking activity. Under the baseline condition (\panel[i]{E}) there are several peaks, from left to right, at the baseline firing rate $\fbase{}$, $f_{EOD} - \fbase{}$ $f_{EOD}$, and $f_{EOD} + \fbase{}$. In the stimulus driven regime (\panel[ii]{E}), there is only a peak at \feod, while under the noise split condition (\panel[iii]{E}) again all peaks are present.}
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\end{figure*}
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\subsection*{Numerical implementation}
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The model's ODEs were integrated by the Euler forward method with a time-step of $\Delta t = 0.05$\,ms. The intrinsic noise $\xi(t)$ (\Eqnref{eq:LIF}, \subfigrefb{flowchart}{C}) was added by drawing a random number from a normal distribution $\mathcal{N}(0,\,1)$ with zero mean and standard deviation of one in each time step $i$. This number was multiplied with $\sqrt{2D}$ and divided by $\sqrt{\Delta t}$:
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:LIFintegration}
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V_{m_{i+1}} = V_{m_i} + \left(-V_{m_i} + \mu + \alpha V_{d_i} - A_i + \sqrt{\frac{2D}{\Delta t}}\mathcal{N}(0,\,1)_i\right) \frac{\Delta t}{\tau_m}
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\end{equation}
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\subsection*{Model parameters}\label{paramtext}
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The eight free parameters of the P-unit model $\beta$, $\tau_m$, $\mu$, $D$, $\tau_A$, $\Delta_A$, $\tau_d$, and $t_{ref}$, were fitted to both the baseline activity (baseline firing rate, CV of ISIs, serial correlation of ISIs at lag one, and vector strength of spike coupling to EOD) and the responses to step-like increases and decreases in EOD amplitude (onset-state and steady-state responses, effective adaptation time constant). For each simulation, the start parameters $A$, $V_{d}$ and $V_{m}$ were drawn from a random starting value distribution, estimated from a 100\,s baseline simulation after an initial 100\,s of simulation that was discarded as a transient.
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\subsection*{Stimuli for the model}
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The model neurons were driven with similar stimuli as the real neurons in the original experiments. To mimic the interaction with one or two foreign animals the receiving fish's EOD (\Eqnref{eq:eod}) was normalized to an amplitude of one and the respective EODs of a second or third fish were added.%\Eqnref{ eq.\,\ref{eq:eod}
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The random amplitude modulation (RAM) input to the model was created by drawing random amplitude and phases from Gaussian distributions for each frequency component in the range 0--300 Hz. An inverse Fourier transform was applied to get the final amplitude RAM time-course. The input to the model was then
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:ram_equation}
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y(t) = (1+ s(t)) \cdot \cos(2\pi f_{EOD} t)
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\end{equation}
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From each simulation run, the first second was discarded and the analysis was based on the last second of the data. The resulting spectra thus have a spectral resolution of 1\,Hz.
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% \subsection{Second-order susceptibility analysis of the model}
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% %\subsubsection{Model second-order nonlinearity}
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% The second-order susceptibility in the model was calculated with \Eqnref{eq:susceptibility}, resulting in matrices as in \figrefb{model_and_data} and \figrefb{fig:model_full}. For this, the model neuron was presented the input $x(t)$ for 2\,s, with the first second being dismissed as the transient. The second-order susceptibility calculation was performed on the last second, resulting in a frequency resolution of 1\,Hz.
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\subsection*{Model noise split into a noise and a stimulus component}\label{intrinsicsplit_methods}% the Furutsu-Novikov Theorem with the same correlation function
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According to previous works \cite{Lindner2022} the total noise of a LIF model ($\xi$) can be split up into several independent noise processes. Here we split the internal noise into two parts: (i) One part is treated as a driving input signal $s_\xi(t)$, a RAM stimulus where frequencies above 300\,Hz are discarded (\Eqnref{eq:ram_split}), and used to calculate the cross-spectra in \Eqnref{eq:crosshigh} and (ii) the remaining noise $\sqrt{2D \, c_{\rm{noise}}} \cdot \xi(t)$ that is treated as pure noise (\Eqnref{eq:Noise_split_intrinsic}). In this way the effective signal-to-noise ratio can be increased while maintaining the total noise in the system.
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%\sqrt{\rho \, 2D \,c_{\rm{signal}}} \cdot \xi(t)
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%(1-c_{\rm{signal}})\cdot\xi$c_{\rm{noise}} = 1-c_{\rm{signal}}$
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%c_{\rm{signal}} \cdot \xi
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:ram_split}
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y(t) = (1+ s_\xi(t)) \cdot \cos(2\pi f_{EOD} t)
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\end{equation}
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:Noise_split_intrinsic_dendrite}
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\tau_{d} \frac{d V_{d}}{d t} = -V_{d}+ \lfloor y(t) \rfloor_{0}
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\end{equation}
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:Noise_split_intrinsic}
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\tau_{m} \frac{d V_{m}}{d t} = - V_{m} + \mu + \alpha V_{d} - A + \sqrt{2D \, c_{\rm{noise}}} \cdot \xi(t)
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\end{equation}
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% das stimmt so, das c kommt unter die Wurzel!
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%\begin{equation}
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% \label{Noise_split_intrinsic}
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% V_{m_{i+1}} = V_{m_i} + \left(-V_{m_i} + \mu + \alpha V_{d_i} - A_i + \sqrt{\frac{2D c_{\rm{noise}}}{\Delta t}}\mathcal{N}(0,\,1)_i\right) \frac{\Delta t}{\tau_m}
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%\end{equation}
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In the here used model a small portion of the original noise was assigned to the noise component ($c_{\rm{noise}} = 0.1$, \subfigrefb{flowchart}\,\panel[iii]{C}) and a big portion used as the signal component ($c_{\rm{signal}} = 0.9$, \subfigrefb{flowchart}\,\panel[iii]{A}). For the noise split to be valid \cite{Lindner2022} it is critical that both components add up to the initial 100\,\% of the total noise and the baseline properties as the firing rate and the CV of the model are maintained. This is easily achieved in a model without a carrier if the condition $c_{\rm{signal}}+c_{\rm{noise}}=1$ is satisfied. The situation here is more complicated. After the original noise was split into a signal component with $c_{\rm{signal}}$, the frequencies above 300\,Hz were discarded and the signal strength was reduced after the dendritic low pass filtering. To compensate for these transformations the initial signal component was multiplying with the factor $\rho$, keeping the baseline CV (only carrier) and the CV during the noise split comparable, and resulting in $s_\xi(t)$. $\rho$ was found by bisecting the plane of possible factors and minimizing the error between the CV during baseline and stimulation.
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%that was found by minimizing the error between the
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%Furutsu-Novikov Theorem \cite{Novikov1965, Furutsu1963}\Eqnref{eq:ram_split}, (red in \subfigrefb{flowchart}\,\panel[iii]{A}) bisecting the space of possible $\rho$ scaling factors
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%$\rho$ a scaling factor that compensates (see below) for the signal transformations the amplitude modulation stimulus undergoes in the model, i.e. the threshold and the dendritic lowpass.
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%In our case the model has a carrier (the fish's self-generated EOD) and we thus want to drive the model with an amplitude modulation stimulus
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% See section \ref{lifmethods} for model and parameter description.
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\begin{table*}[hp!]
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\caption{\label{modelparams} Model parameters of LIF models, fitted to 2 electrophysiologically recorded P-units \cite{Ott2020}.}
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\begin{center}
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\begin{tabular}{lrrrrrrrr}
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\hline
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\bfseries $cell$ & \bfseries $\beta$ & \bfseries $\tau_{m}$/ms & \bfseries $\mu$ & \bfseries $D$/$\mathbf{ms}$ & \bfseries $\tau_{A}$/ms & \bfseries $\Delta_A$ & \bfseries $\tau_{d}$/ms & \bfseries $t_{ref}$/ms \\\hline
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2012-07-03-ak& $10.6$& $1.38$& $-1.32$& $0.001$& $96.05$& $0.01$& $1.18$& $0.12$ \\
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2018-05-08-ae& $139.6$& $1.49$& $-21.09$& $0.214$& $123.69$& $0.16$& $3.93$& $1.31$ \\
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\hline
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\end{tabular}
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\end{center}
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\end{table*}% 2013-01-08-aa % 2012-07-03-ak
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\newpage
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\section*{Supporting information}
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%\subsection*{High-CV P-units do not exhibit increased nonlinear interactions at \fsum}
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\paragraph*{S1 Second-order susceptibility of high-CV P-unit}
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CVs in P-units can range up to 1.5 \cite{Grewe2017, Hladnik2023}. We show the same analysis as in \figrefb{fig:cells_suscept} for an example higher-CV P-unit. Similar to the low-CV cell, high-CV P-units fire at multiples of the EOD period (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}{A}). In contrast to low-CV P-units, however, the higher CV characterizes the noisier baseline firing pattern and the peak at \fbase{} is less pronounced in the power spectrum of the baseline activity (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}{B}). High-CV P-units do not exhibit a clear nonlinear structure related to \fbase{} neither in the second-order susceptibility matrices (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}{E--F}), nor in the projected diagonals (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}{G}). The overall level of nonlinearity, however shows the same dependence on the stimulus contrast. It is much reduced for high-contrast stimuli that drive the neuron much stronger (\subfigrefb{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV}{F}).
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\label{S1:highcvpunit}
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\begin{figure*}[!ht]
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{cells_suscept_high_CV}
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\caption{\label{fig:cells_suscept_high_CV} Response of experimentally measured P-units (cell identifier ``2018-08-24-af") to RAM stimuli. Light purple -- low RAM contrast. Dark purple -- high RAM contrast. Noisy high-CV P-Unit. \figitem{A} Interspike intervals (ISI) distribution during baseline. \figitem{B} Baseline power spectrum of the firing rate. \figitem{C} Top: EOD carrier (gray) with RAM (red). Middle: Spike trains in response to a low RAM contrast. Bottom: Spike trains in response to a high RAM contrast. \figitem{D} First-order susceptibility (see \Eqnref{linearencoding_methods}). \figitem{E} Absolute value of the second-order susceptibility, \Eqnref{eq:susceptibility}, for the low RAM contrast.
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Pink lines -- edges of the structure when \fone, \ftwo{} or \fsum{} are equal to \fbase{}. \figitem{F} Absolute value of the second-order susceptibility for the higher RAM contrast. \figitem{G} Projected diagonals, calculated as the mean of the anti-diagonals of the matrices in \panel{E--F}. Gray dots: \fbase{}. Dashed lines: Medians of the projected diagonals.
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}
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\end{figure*}
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\begin{figure*}[hp]%hp!
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\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{trialnr}
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\caption{\label{fig:trialnr} Saturation of the second-order susceptibility depending on the stimulus repetition number $\n{}$. \figitem{A} Gray line -- 99.9th percentile of the second-order susceptibility matrix. \figitem{B} Gray line -- 10th percentile of the second-order susceptibility matrix.
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}
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\end{figure*}
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